第2688期:The problem with glitter

The method used, known as oral immunotherapy, has already been successful in children and babies with peanut allergies. But it wasn't clear if adult allergies, which are more embedded, could be treated the same way.这个试验所使用的方法被称为口服免疫疗法，这种治疗方法已经在对花生过敏的儿童和婴幼儿中取得了成功。但研究者们尚不清楚的是，对于成年人更加根深蒂固的过敏症来说同样的疗法是否有效。At the start of the small trial, participants were given tiny doses of peanut powder mixed with food. And over many months, the quantities were gradually increased to whole nuts. All this happened under strict medical supervision.在这个小规模试验开始时，受试者被要求服下混在食物中的微量花生粉末。在接下来的数月中，花生粉末的量逐步增加到相当于整颗花生的含量。试验过程始终在严格的医学监督下进行。By the end of the trial, the average dose tolerated had increased by one hundred-fold with patients able to eat out, socialise and travel without worry. This is early research, and larger trials are now needed to find out more about who could benefit from this approach in the long run.到试验结束时，受试者对花生的平均耐受剂量提升了 100 倍，并且可以在外出就餐、社交和旅行时不必再担心出现过敏反应。这是早期的研究结果，而现在研究人员需要进行更大规模的研究来判断哪些人能长期受益于这项治疗方法。

Pretty, sparkly, and really hard to get rid of. Forms of glitter have been used for decoration since at least Aztec times and can be found on ornaments, clothes, greeting cards and cosmetics. However, today's glitter is often made of plastic, and this makes it more dangerous than it appears.漂亮，闪闪发光，真的很难摆脱。 从至少AZTEC时代开始，闪光的形式已被用于装饰，可以在装饰品，衣服，贺卡和化妆品上找到。 但是，今天的闪光通常是由塑料制成的，这使其比看起来更危险。Pieces of glitter are often washed into the water system, and from there into seas and rivers. Here, they become microplastic pollution. Fish often mistake small plastic particles for food and eat them. When something low in the food chain is eaten by predators, they also consume the microplastics left in their prey. If we eat seafood, that includes us. While there are still questions about the impact of this, microplastics have been linked with issues including DNA damage, organ dysfunction and cardiovascular problems. It's been estimated that humans may ingest between 74,000 and 121,000 microplastic particles each year.经常将片闪光从水系统冲入水系统，然后从那里进入海洋和河流。 在这里，它们成为微塑料污染。 鱼经常将小塑料颗粒误认为食物并食用。 当食物链中的食物链中的某些东西被掠食者食用时，他们还消耗了猎物中留下的微塑料。 如果我们吃海鲜，那包括我们。 尽管仍然存在有关此影响的问题，但微塑料与包括DNA损伤，器官功能障碍和心血管问题在内的问题有关。 据估计，人类每年可能摄入74,000至121,000个微塑料颗粒。Glitter only makes up a tiny part of the microplastics found in the ocean, but it can be particularly harmful. Firstly, while most microplastics in marine environments are formed by large pieces of plastic breaking down, glitter is manufactured as a microplastic. It is also made up of several different compounds which can leach toxins into the surrounding environment.闪光只构成了海洋中发现的微塑料的很小一部分，但它可能特别有害。 首先，尽管海洋环境中的大多数微型塑料都是由大量塑料分解而成的，但闪光是作为微型塑料制造的。 它也由几种不同的化合物组成，可以将毒素浸入周围环境中。Additionally, a recent study has suggested that glitter particles can encourage the formation of certain mineral crystals, changing the chemistry of the environment around them. Not only could this affect how sea life produces shells and skeletons, but the crystals can break up the particles further, forming nanoplastics. These are even more likely to be absorbed by marine organisms.此外，最近的一项研究表明，闪光颗粒可以鼓励形成某些矿物晶体，改变周围环境的化学性质。 这不仅会影响海洋生物产生壳和骨骼的方式，而且晶体可以进一步分解颗粒，形成纳米塑料。 这些甚至更有可能被海洋生物吸收。Biodegradable alternatives have been developed, although some studies suggest that these could be just as harmful. Maybe we should just find a different way to make decorations.已经开发了可生物降解的替代方法，尽管一些研究表明这些替代方法可能同样有害。 也许我们应该找到一种制作装饰的不同方法。

Scientists recently announced the discovery of a small, bird-like dinosaur from China which had unusual, colorful feathers.科学家最近宣布发现了一种来自中国的小鸟般的恐龙，这些恐龙具有不寻常的羽毛。The scientists named the dinosaur Caihong, the Mandarin word for rainbow. They discovered the nearly complete and almost entirely undamaged fossil in Hebei Province.科学家将恐龙Caihong命名为彩虹的普通话。 他们发现了河北省几乎完整而几乎完全未受损的化石。Microscopic structures in the fossil suggest that the creature had wide, shiny feathers. The feathers mostly covered the dinosaur’s head and upper body. The colors of those feather would have appeared to change depending on how the light hit them.化石中的微观结构表明该生物具有宽阔的羽毛。 羽毛大多覆盖了恐龙的头和上身。 这些羽毛的颜色似乎会根据光的击中方式而改变。The colorful dinosaur lived 161 million years ago during the Jurassic Period of earth’s history.五颜六色的恐龙生活在地球历史的侏罗纪时期的16100万年前。Chad Eliason is an evolutionary biologist with the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois. He helped write the study announcing the discovery in the scientific publication Nature Communications. Eliason told the Reuters news service that the discovery “suggests a more colorful Jurassic World than we previously imagined.”乍得·埃里亚森（Chad Eliason）是伊利诺伊州芝加哥田间博物馆的进化生物学家。 他帮助撰写了这项研究，宣布了科学出版物自然传播中的发现。 埃里亚森（Eliason）告诉路透社新闻服务（Reuters News Service），这一发现“暗示了比我们以前想象的要多彩的侏罗纪世界。”The scientists used powerful microscopes to identify the remains of the cell structures responsible for the apparent color of the feathers. The shape of those structures appears to have influenced what color the feathers would have. Round-shaped structures in the Caihong fossil show that it had feathers similar to that of a modern day hummingbird.科学家使用强大的显微镜来识别负责羽毛表观颜色的细胞结构的残留物。 这些结构的形状似乎影响了羽毛的颜色。 Caihong化石中的圆形结构表明，它的羽毛类似于现代蜂鸟。Much of Caihong’s body had dark feathers. The shiny, color-changing feathers covered its head and neck. The dinosaur had many bird-like qualities. But researchers doubt that it could actually fly.Caihong的大部分身体都有深色的羽毛。 闪亮的，变色的羽毛覆盖了头和脖子。 恐龙具有许多类似鸟类的品质。 但是研究人员怀疑它实际上可以飞行。Its feathers could have served the purpose of gaining the attention of sexual partners while also providing protection from heat and cold.它的羽毛本来可以实现的目的是吸引性伴侣的注意力，同时还可以保护热和寒冷。Caihong was two-legged and had a long, narrow head with sharp teeth. It had boney crests above its eyes, and it hunted other, smaller animals for food.凯恩（Caihong）是两腿，头部狭窄，牙齿锋利。 它的眼睛上方有骨冠，并猎杀了其他较小的动物作为食物。Scientists say many dinosaurs had feathers. Birds evolved from small feathered dinosaurs near the end of the Jurassic Period.科学家说，许多恐龙有羽毛。 鸟类从侏罗纪时期结束后附近的小羽毛恐龙演变而来。Caihong had two kinds of feathers. It also is the earliest-known creature with feathers that did not have the same shape on both sides. This is a physical quality that modern birds have and use to direct themselves while flying.Caihong有两种羽毛。 它也是最早的生物，羽毛在两侧的形状都不相同。 这是现代鸟类在飞行时指导自己的身体品质。The unevenly shaped feathers on Caihong were on its tail. This suggests that tail feathers, not arm feathers, were first used to improve movement through the air in flying dinosaurs, scientists said.Caihong上不均匀的羽毛在其尾部。 科学家说，这表明尾羽羽毛而不是手臂羽毛首先是用于改善飞行恐龙的空气运动。Xing Xu is a paleontologist with the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Xing Xu said, “It is extremely similar to some early birds such as Archaeopteryx.” Archaeopteryx is the earliest known bird. It is believed to have lived 150 million years ago.Xing Xu是中国科学院的古生物学家。 Xing Xu说：“这与一些早期鸟类（例如Archeopteryx）非常相似。” Archeopteryx是最早已知的鸟。 据信它已经居住了1.5亿年前。“To be honest, I am not sure what function the feathers have,” Xing Xu added. “And I don’t think that you can completely exclude the possibility that the feathers helped the animal to get in the air.”Xu Xu补充说：“老实说，我不确定羽毛的功能。” “而且我认为您不能完全排除羽毛帮助动物启动的可能性。”The dinosaur’s full scientific name is Caihong juji, which means “rainbow with a big crest.”恐龙的完整科学名称是Caihong Juji，意思是“带有大冠的彩虹”。

There are hundreds of thousands of Mexican axolotls in laboratories and home aquariums around the world, studied for their remarkable ability to regrow any lost limb. But in their native wetlands in Xochimilco in Mexico City, the population has been decimated by pollution and invasive species.数十万只美西螈被饲养在全球各地的实验室和家庭鱼缸中，人们借此研究它们非凡的肢体再生能力。然而，在它们的原生栖息地，墨西哥城的索奇米尔科湿地，野生美西螈的数量因污染和外来物种的入侵而大幅减少。Now, though, researchers who've bred axolotls in captivity have taken a major step towards bringing them back. The team released a small group at two sites in the city's wetland. They fitted the amphibians with radio trackers so they could follow their progress.不过现在，圈养和繁育美西螈的研究人员向将它们放归自然的方向迈出了重要的一步。研究团队将一小群美西螈放归至墨西哥城湿地的两处地区。研究人员为它们装上了无线电追踪器，以便追踪它们的生长情况。All 18 animals have survived, and a few that were recaptured had gained weight, showing that despite being raised in tanks, they were now hunting. It's early days, but if the wild axolotl can be saved in a city of more than 20 million people, scientists say that will be a symbolic success story.↳被放归的 18 只美西螈全部存活了下来，其中一些被重新捕获的个体的体重也增加了，这表明尽管这些美西螈之前被圈养在水缸中，但它们现在已开始进行捕猎。虽然实验尚处在早期阶段，但科学家表示，如果野生美西螈可以在一个人口超过 2000 万的城市中生存下来，那这将是一个标志性的成功案例。

From painted foam pieces resembling delicious feasts to engineered weather, the magic of film relies on hidden details unknown and usually invisible to the unsuspecting viewer. So, let's explore some of the most fascinating behind-the-scenes tricks of the big screen.从类似美味的盛宴到工程天气的彩绘泡沫碎片，电影的魔力取决于隐藏的细节未知，通常是毫无戒心的观众。 因此，让我们探索大屏幕上一些最迷人的幕后花样。Screen trickery and cinematic illusions are a huge part of what brings stories to life, and set is key to this. Consider period dramas like Sherlock and Peaky Blinders – both TV programmes changed modern street furniture like lampposts and signs by covering them up with facades or temporary structures. Cobbled streets, a staple of many historical dramas, can be created using plastic or rubber floor tiles, which are lightweight and therefore quick to lay down and remove.屏幕骗局和电影幻觉是将故事带入生活的重要组成部分，而设定是这样的关键。 考虑一下夏洛克和Peaky Blinders等时期戏剧 - 两个电视节目都通过用立面或临时结构遮盖了现代街头家具，例如灯柱和标志。 可以使用塑料或橡胶地板瓷砖制作的许多历史戏剧的鹅卵石街道，这是许多历史戏剧，它们是轻巧的，因此很快放下和移除。But sometimes it's not just part of a set that's made, but the entire thing. A team of 86 artists and model makers built an incredibly detailed miniature model of Hogwarts, the wizarding school in the Harry Potter series. It was easier to create this than to build a real castle, and was especially used for sweeping shots of the castle's exterior.但是有时候，这不仅是制造的集合的一部分，而且是整个事情。 由86家艺术家和模特制造商组成的团队建立了一个令人难以置信的详细霍格沃茨（Hogwarts）的微型模型，这是哈利·波特（Harry Potter）系列的巫师学校。 创建它比建造真正的城堡要容易，而且特别用于扫地城堡外部的镜头。It's even possible to control the weather. Filmmakers creating a rain scene generally don't use real rain, partly because you can't control it, but also because natural rain doesn't show up on camera very well. This is because the water droplets are too small, so rain machines that create bigger droplets are often used. Combine that with a dramatic backlight and the rain will glisten on screen. This was likely a technique used in The Matrix, possibly alongside CGI, in the final fight scene between Agent Smith and Neo, which takes place in a torrential downpour.甚至有可能控制天气。 电影制片人创造一个雨场通常不会使用真正的雨，部分原因是您无法控制它，而且因为自然雨在相机上的出现并不能很好地显示在相机上。 这是因为水滴太小了，因此经常使用产生更大液滴的雨机。 将其与戏剧性的背光结合在一起，雨将闪烁在屏幕上。 这可能是在矩阵中使用的一种技术，可能与CGI一起使用，在经纪人史密斯和Neo之间的最后战斗场景中，这是在倾盆大雨中发生的。So next time you're watching a movie, remember the movie magic – you can't believe everything you see!因此，下次您看电影时，请记住电影魔术 - 您无法相信您所看到的一切！

Genetic material from a 10,000-year-old skeleton suggests the oldest-known Briton had dark skin and blue eyes.来自10，000年历史的骨骼的遗传物质表明，最古老的英国人的皮肤和蓝色的眼睛是蓝色的。Scientists from Britain’s Natural History Museum and University College London reported the finding Wednesday after studying the remains of an individual known as “Cheddar Man.”来自英国自然历史博物馆和伦敦大学学院的科学家在研究了一个被称为“切达男子”的人的遗体后，周三报告了这一发现。The skeleton was discovered over a century ago. It was found inside a large hole in the Cheddar Gorge area of southwest England.骨骼是一个多世纪前发现的。 它被发现在英格兰西南切达峡谷地区的一个大洞中。The researchers cut a hole into the skull of the human remains and removed DNA from bone powder.研究人员将一个孔切入了人类遗体的头骨，并从骨粉中除去了DNA。The letters DNA are short for the term deoxyribonucleic acid. Scientists call it the chemical of life.字母DNA对于脱氧核糖核酸术语而言是短的。 科学家称其为生命的化学物质。DNA is made up of genes. Genes, like letters in words, carry a huge amount of information. They tell cells how to make all the materials for life.DNA由基因组成。 基因，就像单词中的字母一样，都带有大量信息。 他们告诉细胞如何制造生命的所有材料。The British scientists say their tests showed Cheddar Man had dark, wavy hair, blue eyes and "dark to black" skin color.英国科学家说，他们的测试表明，切达干酪的男人有黑暗的波浪，蓝眼睛和“深色至黑色”的肤色。The researchers say the evidence suggests that Europeans' light skin coloring developed much later than experts had thought.研究人员说，证据表明，欧洲人的浅色肤色比专家想象的要晚得多。Cheddar Man overturns people's expectations of what kinds of genetic qualities go together, said Tom Booth, who worked on the project.从事该项目的汤姆·布斯（Tom Booth）说，切达（Cheddar）的人推翻了人们对遗传品质的期望。"It seems that pale eyes entered Europe long before pale skin or blond hair, which didn't come along until after the arrival of farming," he added.他补充说：“看来苍白的眼睛在淡淡的皮肤或金色的头发之前很久就进入了欧洲，直到耕种到来后才出现。”Some experts believe that ancient humans who lived in extreme northern areas may have developed light colored skin. They note light skin is able to take in more sunlight than darker skin. Sunlight is required for the body to produce vitamin D.一些专家认为，住在极端北部地区的古代人可能会形成浅色的皮肤。 他们指出，皮肤比较暗的皮肤更能吸收阳光。 人体产生维生素D需要阳光D。Cheddar Man shares genetic similarities with other human remains found in Spain, Hungary and Luxembourg. All those individuals lived in the Mesolithic Period, also known as the Middle Stone Age Period. The group, known as Western Hunter-Gatherers, moved to Europe from the Middle East after the last Ice Age, about 12,000 years ago.切达曼（Cheddar Man）与西班牙，匈牙利和卢森堡发现的其他人类遗体有遗传相似之处。 所有这些人都生活在中石器时代，也称为中石时代。 该组织被称为西方狩猎者，在最后一个冰河时代（大约12，000年前）从中东移居欧洲。The Associated Press says Cheddar Man is the oldest complete skeleton found in Britain. Human beings had lived on the island off and on for thousands of years before his time, but they disappeared during periodic ice ages.美联社说，切达干酪是在英国发现的最古老的完整骨骼。 人类在他的时间之前已经在岛上生活了数千年，但他们在定期冰上消失了。Cheddar Man would have been one of a very small population of hunter-gatherers in Britain at the time. Scientists, who have been studying his skeleton, say he appears to have had a healthy diet but died in his 20s, possibly through violence.当时，切达干酪人本来就是英国很少的狩猎采集者之一。 一直在研究骨骼的科学家说，他似乎饮食健康，但在20多岁时死亡，可能是由于暴力行为。

Scientists have discovered evidence that some of the earliest members of the human race, Homo sapiens, were surprisingly advanced.科学家发现了证据表明，人类最早的人智人（Homo Sapiens）令人惊讶地先进。Scientists say these early humans knew how to use color pigments found in nature, create advanced tools and trade for supplies with other groups of people.科学家说，这些早期的人知道如何使用自然界中发现的颜色色素，创建高级工具和与其他人群的供应。A report on the discovery was published recently in the journal Science.该发现的报告最近发表在《科学》杂志上。The scientists said they examined artifacts recovered from southern Kenya. Some of the objects are said to date back to 320,000 years ago. They are about the same age as the earliest-known Homo sapiens fossils found in other parts of Africa.科学家说，他们检查了从肯尼亚南部回收的文物。 据说其中一些物体可以追溯到320，000年前。 它们与在非洲其他地区发现的最早著名的智人化石大约相同。In the report, the researchers described an ochre pigment that produced a bright-red color. They say this pigment could have been used for body painting. They also found tools made from obsidian, a volcanic rock that can have an extremely sharp edge.在报告中，研究人员描述了一种产生鲜红色颜色的Ocher色素。 他们说这种颜料本可以用于人体彩绘。 他们还发现了用黑曜石制成的工具，这是一种火山岩，可以具有极为锋利的边缘。The researchers found evidence of obsidian being transported to the Olorgesailie Basin, up to 88 kilometers away from where the rock was found. This discovery led the scientists to believe it had come from another group through trade. But they did not know what was provided in exchange for the obsidian.研究人员发现，黑曜石被运送到距离发现岩石的88公里的Olorgesailie盆地的证据。 这一发现使科学家认为它是通过贸易来自另一个群体的。 但是他们不知道为黑曜石换取了什么。The researchers said the findings show developments in technology and social structures unexpected so early in human history.研究人员说，调查结果表明，在人类历史的早期，技术和社会结构方面的发展。Rick Potts is a paleoanthropologist and director of the Human Origins Program at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C. He believes that these newly identified mental and social abilities — including recognition of “distant groups, use of pigments and technologies including projectile points — were at the foundation of our species’ origin.”里克·波茨（Rick Potts）是史密森学会（Smithsonian Institution）在华盛顿特区国家自然历史博物馆的人类人类原产计划的主任，也是人类起源计划。他认为，这些新近确定的心理和社会能力，包括“远处的群体，使用颜料和技术的使用，包括投射点 - 是我们物种起源的基础”。Alison Brooks, another paleoanthropologist, is with the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. Speaking of the pigment, she said, “The choice of importing the ochre from a distance rather than using a more common local material…argues that having a red face or hair or clothing or weapons also carried a symbolic message of some sort.”另一位古人类学家艾莉森·布鲁克斯（Alison Brooks）在华盛顿特区的乔治华盛顿大学（George Washington University）谈到颜料，她说：“选择从远处进口ocher而不是使用更常见的本地材料……认为拥有红色的脸，头发或衣服或武器或武器也带有某种象征性的信息。”The researchers described the obsidian tools they found as smaller, of better quality, and more specialized than larger stone tools used by earlier human species.研究人员描述了他们发现的黑曜石工具较小，质量更高，并且比早期人类使用的更大的石材工具更专业。The obsidian was used in a number of tools with sharp or pointy edges. The rock was also found in small, sharp points that could be placed at the end of a piece of wood or bone for use as a weapon.黑曜石被用于许多具有锋利或尖端边缘的工具。 还发现了岩石的小点，可以放在木头或骨头的末端，以用作武器。

A finger bone is pointing to what scientists are calling a new understanding of how ancient human beings came out of Africa and began settling the rest of the world.手指骨头指出了科学家对古代人如何从非洲出来并开始定居世界其他地区的新理解。The middle bone of an adult’s middle finger was unearthed in the Nefud Desert of Saudi Arabia. It was found in an area called Al Wusta. Testing has dated the fossilized remains to about 90,000 years ago.在沙特阿拉伯的尼古德沙漠中发现了成人中指的中间骨头。 它是在一个名为Al Wusta的地区发现的。 测试已将化石遗物的历史记录到大约900，000年前。Researchers reported that it is the oldest Homo sapiens fossil ever found outside of Africa and the eastern Mediterranean Levant area. They also said it is the first human fossil from the Arabian peninsula.研究人员报告说，这是在非洲和地中海东部黎凡特地区发现的最古老的智人化石。 他们还说，这是阿拉伯半岛的第一个人类化石。While the Nefud Desert is now a sea of sand, it was green when this Homo sapiens lived. The researchers say the area was once a grasslands, filled with wildlife, near a freshwater lake.虽然Nefud沙漠现在是沙滩，但当这种同性恋狂人居住时，它是绿色的。 研究人员说，该地区曾经是一个淡水湖附近的草原，里面充满了野生动植物。Our human ancestors first appeared in Africa about 300,000 years ago. Scientists once thought Homo sapiens left Africa in a single, fast migration some 60,000 years ago. It was thought they moved along coastal areas, eating fish and other sea creatures, said Michael Petraglia. He is an anthropologist with the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany.我们的人类祖先大约30万年前首次出现在非洲。 科学家曾经以为同性恋者在大约60，000年前的一次快速移民中离开了非洲。 迈克尔·佩特拉格利亚（Michael Petraglia）说，人们认为他们沿着沿海地区搬进了沿海地区，吃鱼和其他海洋生物。 他是德国马克斯·普朗克人类历史科学学院的人类学家。This fossil bone, measuring 3.2 centimeters from end to end, suggests our species left Africa much earlier.这种化石骨的末端为3.2厘米，这表明我们的物种更早地离开了非洲。Petraglia explained that the fossil supports the idea that Homo sapiens did not move all at one time, but slowly and over many years. The discovery also shows these people were moving across the interior of the land, not just along the coastline, he added.Petraglia解释说，化石支持了Homo Sapiens一次没有移动的观念，而是在慢慢地和多年的时间里移动。 他补充说，这一发现还表明，这些人正在遍布土地内部，而不仅仅是海岸线。Near the fossil finger, scientists also discovered many animal fossils, University of Oxford archeologist Huw Groucutt said. Bite marks on fossilized bones showed that meat-eaters lived in the area.牛津大学考古学家Huw Groucutt说，在化石手指附近，科学家还发现了许多动物化石。 化石骨骼上的咬痕表明，肉食者生活在该地区。Stone tools that hunter-gatherers used also were found.还发现了猎人采集者使用的石材工具。“The big question now is what became of the ancestors of the population to which the Al Wusta human belonged,” Groucutt said.格鲁库特说：“现在最大的问题是，艾尔·沃斯塔（Al Wusta）人类所属的人口的祖先成了什么。”“We know that shortly after they lived, the rains failed and the area dried up. Did this population die out? Did it survive further south in Arabia?” Groucutt asked. He noted that the drying environment many have pushed them into Eurasia.“我们知道，在他们居住后不久，降雨失败了，该地区枯竭了。这个人口死亡了吗？它在阿拉伯南部进一步生存吗？” 格鲁卡特问。 他指出，许多人将它们推向欧亚大陆的干燥环境。A report on the findings was published in the magazine Nature Ecology and Evolution.有关发现的报告发表在《自然生态与进化》杂志上。

Scientists have identified three genes that may have played an important part in a major development in human evolution.科学家已经确定了三个可能在人类进化的重大发展中起重要作用的基因。The genes are being linked to the increase in brain size that took place in ancestors of human beings. This increase led to the development of mental abilities that define what it means to be human.这些基因与人类祖先发生的大脑大小的增加有关。 这种增长导致了定义人类含义的心理能力的发展。Researchers published two reports on their observations of the genes in the publication Cell in late May.研究人员发表了两份有关他们对5月下旬出版物细胞基因的观察的报告。The researchers believe the genes first appeared between three and four million years ago. This was just before a period in the fossil record that shows a major brain enlargement in the species from which humans evolved.研究人员认为，这些基因首次出现在三到四百万年前。 这是在化石记录中的一段时间之前，显示了人类进化的物种中的大脑肿大。The three genes share almost the exact same qualities. Along with a fourth one that seems to serve no purpose, they are called NOTCH2NL genes. They came from a gene family believed to have developed hundreds of millions of years ago. They are also important in the development of embryos.这三个基因几乎具有完全相同的品质。 除了似乎没有目的的第四个外，它们被称为Notch2nl基因。 他们来自一个据信基因家族，该家族已经发展了数亿年。 它们在胚胎的发展中也很重要。The NOTCH2NL genes are especially active in the collection of nerve stem cells in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer part of the brain responsible for the highest mental processes. These include language, memory and reasoning.Notch2nl基因在大脑皮层中神经干细胞的收集中特别活跃。 大脑皮层是负责最高心理过程的大脑外部部分。 这些包括语言，记忆和推理。The genes were found to slow the development of stem cells in the cerebral cortex into neurons in the embryo. The researchers say this delay leads to the production of a higher number of more developed nerve cells in this area of the brain.发现这些基因会减慢脑皮质中干细胞在胚胎中神经元中的发育。 研究人员说，这种延迟会导致在大脑该区域中产生更高数量的发达神经细胞。Pierre Vanderhaeghen is a developmental neurobiologist at the Université Libre de Bruxelles in Belgium. He told the Reuters news service that, in large part, the cerebral cortex is responsible for what defines humans as a species and as individuals.Pierre Vanderhaeghen是比利时的Libre de Bruxelles大学的发展神经生物学家。 他告诉路透社新闻服务，在很大程度上，大脑皮层造成了将人类定义为一种物种和个人的原因。“Understanding how it emerged in evolution is a fascinating question, touching at the basic origins of mankind,” said Vanderhaeghen.范德海格说：“了解它在进化中的出现是一个令人着迷的问题，它触及了人类的基本起源。”David Haussler is a biomolecular engineer and the scientific director of the University of California, Santa Cruz Genomics Institute. He added that it is “the ultimate evolutionary question” and a very interesting area of research in which to work.戴维·豪斯勒（David Haussler）是一位生物分子工程师，也是加利福尼亚大学圣克鲁斯基因组学院的科学主任。 他补充说，这是“最终的进化问题”，也是一个非常有趣的研究领域。The species Australopithecus afarensis is an ancestor of humans that combined both ape-like and human-like qualities. The well-known fossil named “Lucy,” discovered in Ethiopia in 1974, was a member of that species. Lucy lived in Africa at about the time these genes are believed to have appeared.Australopithecus Afarensis是人类的祖先，它们既结合了猿类样和类人的品质。 著名的化石名为“露西”，于1974年在埃塞俄比亚发现，是该物种的成员。 露西大约在这些基因出现的时候就住在非洲。Sofie Salama is a UC-Santa Cruz biomolecular engineering research scientist. She said it would be great if it were possible to record the complete order of all of Lucy’s genetic material, her DNA. But she noted that it would be nearly impossible.Sofie Salama是UC-Santa Cruz生物分子工程研究科学家。 她说，如果有可能记录露西所有遗传材料，她的DNA的完整顺序，那就太好了。 但是她指出，这几乎是不可能的。FILE PHOTO: Students attend a lecture in the auditorium of a university in Munich, Germany, May 25, 2016. REUTERS/Michaela RehleThe NOTCH2NL genes are not present in the closest genetic relatives to human beings. None were found in monkeys or orangutans.Notch2nl基因不存在于最接近人类的遗传亲属中。 在猴子或猩猩中没有发现。However, Reuters reports that the researchers did find the genes in the remains of two human ancestor species: Neanderthals and Denisovans.但是，路透社报道说，研究人员确实在两个人类祖先物种的遗迹中找到了基因：尼安德特人和丹尼索凡夫人。NOTCH2NL gene abnormalities were found to be connected problems that affect the brain. These include autism, schizophrenia and both unusually large and unusually small head size.发现Notch2nl基因异常是影响大脑的问题。 这些包括自闭症，精神分裂症以及头部大小异常大且异常小。

Scientists say they have confirmed that strange-looking fossils from more than 500 million years ago are remains of an animal.科学家说，他们已经确认，超过5亿年前的奇怪化石是动物的遗体。That would make it one of the earliest known creatures.那将使它成为最早的已知生物之一。The fossils are found within rocks. They are round with many lines, and look similar to the markings of a leaf.化石在岩石中发现。 它们的圆形有许多线条，看起来与叶子的标记相似。The fossils were first described in 1947. They have been found in Australia and Russia. Some are very small; others are over a meter long.这些化石于1947年首次描述。它们在澳大利亚和俄罗斯发现。 有些很小； 其他人则超过一米。Scientists have named the mysterious ancient organism that left these fossils behind “Dickinsonia.”科学家将神秘的古代有机体命名为，将这些化石留在了“狄金森尼亚”之后。But what exactly was it?但是到底是什么？In the past, some scientists suggested it was an animal. Others believed it was a single-celled organism called a protist.过去，一些科学家认为这是动物。 其他人则认为这是一种称为put虫的单细胞生物。Researchers presented evidence that Dickinsonia was an animal in a recent paper. The paper appeared in the publication Science.研究人员提供了证据，表明狄金森尼亚是最近的一篇论文中的动物。 该论文出现在出版科学中。The most important evidence was that Dickinsonia fossils found in Russia contained carbon-bearing substances produced by animals.最重要的证据是，在俄罗斯发现的狄金尼亚化石中含有动物产生的碳含量。Experts not connected to the study called that evidence strong. They also said most scientists who had studied the fossils already believed that Dickinsonia was probably an animal.与研究没有联系的专家称这证据很强烈。 他们还说，大多数研究化石的科学家已经相信狄金森尼亚可能是动物。Douglas Erwin is with the Smithsonian Institution. He said he is sure the fossils are from an animal.道格拉斯·埃文（Douglas Erwin）与史密森尼机构在一起。 他说，他确定化石来自动物。It is not clear when Dickinsonia lived. Some fossils are about 558 million years old, said Jochen Brocks of the Australian National University in Canberra. He was one of the researchers involved in the study.目前尚不清楚迪金森尼何时居住。 堪培拉澳大利亚国立大学的Jochen Brocks说，一些化石的历史了约5.58亿年。 他是参与研究的研究人员之一。Brocks considers Dickinsonia to be “the very oldest animal that we can be sure about. He added that it is about 2 million years older than another widely accepted animal fossil.布罗克（Brocks）认为狄金森尼亚（Dickinsonia）是“我们可以确定的最古老的动物。他补充说，它比另一种被广泛接受的动物化石大约200万年。Brocks said scientists do not know much about what Dickinsonia looked like. But he said they do know it was “soft and flexible.”布罗克斯说，科学家对狄金森尼的样子不太了解。 但是他说他们确实知道这是“柔软而灵活的”。Dickinsonia was not the first animal on Earth. Analysis of the genetic materials of living animals suggests that animals first appeared more than 720 million years ago. But scientists have never found fossils that old.狄金森尼亚不是地球上的第一只动物。 对活动物的遗传材料的分析表明，动物首先出现在7.2亿年前。 但是科学家从未发现化石那么古老。