Approach to Shortness of Breath

An approach to dyspnea (shortness of breath), including the dyspnea pyramid to remember the differentials, as well as key investigations that help identify the cause, as well as common patterns in the history and physical examination. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/products/assessment-or-interpretationConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Dyspnea?0:19 The Dyspnea Pyramid2:50 Dyspnea History & Physical Exam Patterns4:43 Dyspnea InvestigationsLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Evaluation of dyspnoea in adults. BMJ Publishing Group.BMJ Best Practice (2025) Acute dyspnoea. BMJ Publishing Group.National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2025) Breathlessness. Clinical Knowledge Summaries (CKS).MSD Manual Professional Edition (2025) Dyspnea. MSD Manual Professional Edition.StatPearls (2024) Dyspnea. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.Parshall, M.B., Schwartzstein, R.M., Adams, L., Banzett, R.B., Manning, H.L., Bourbeau, J., Calverley, P.M.A., Gift, A.G., Harver, A., Lareau, S.C., Mahler, D.A. and O'Donnell, D.E. (2012) An Official American Thoracic Society Statement: Update on the Mechanisms, Assessment, and Management of Dyspnea. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 185(4), pp.435–452.

Chest X-ray interpretation made easy, a systematic approach to reading CXR. See on YouTube for pathology examples! PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/products/assessment-or-interpretationConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 Chest X-Ray Basics0:37 D- Details0:55 R - Radiography and Image Quality2:49 A - Airway & Bronchi3:50 B - Breathing (Lungs & Pleura)6:33 C - Cardiac & Circulation (Heart & Systemic Vessels)8:51 D - Diaphragm and Below9:54 E - External (Bones & Soft Tissues)10:51 F -  Foreign Bodies 11:19 Closing ThoughtsLINK TO MORE MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. ReferencesRadiopaedia (2025) Chest radiograph. Radiopaedia.org. Available at: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/chest-radiograph?lang=gbRadiopaedia (2025) Chest X-ray review: ABCDEF. Radiopaedia.org. Available at: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/chest-x-ray-review-abcdef?lang=gbWard, D. and Potter, L. (2024) Chest X-ray interpretation: a methodical approach. Geeky Medics. Available at: https://geekymedics.com/chest-x-ray-interpretation-a-methodical-approach/Cadogan, M. (2023) ABC of CXR interpretation. Life in the Fast Lane (LITFL). Available at: https://litfl.com/abc-of-cxr-interpretation/

Liver Function Test (LFT) Interpretation made easy, reviewing the tests included within an LFT as well as the main patterns of Cholestatic vs Hepatocellular injury seen, as well as potential causes. Also includes further details on bilirubin, albumin and clotting profiles, as well as some LFT interpretation pearls and further investigations. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/products/assessment-or-interpretationConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What are Liver Function Tests? 1:43 LFT Cholestatic Pattern3:07 LFT Hepatocellular Pattern 5:18 LFT Bilirubin7:46 LFT Albumin & Clotting Profile8:25 LFT Interpretation Pearls9:54 LFT Interpretation Further InvestigationsLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. ReferencesGeeky Medics (2025) Interpretation of liver function tests (LFTs). Geeky Medics. Available at: https://geekymedics.com/interpretation-of-liver-function-tests-lfts/NHS Specialist Pharmacy Service (2024) Assessing liver function and interpreting liver blood tests. Specialist Pharmacy Service. Available at: https://www.sps.nhs.uk/articles/assessing-liver-function-and-interpreting-liver-blood-tests/ (SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service)Parsons, G. (2023) ‘Understanding liver function tests: part 1’, Prescriber, 34(7), pp. 19–23. doi: 10.1002/psb.2079. Available at: https://wchh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/psb.2079 (wchh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com)Royal United Hospitals Bath NHS Foundation Trust (2022) Liver Function Tests in Adults: A Guide for GPs (PATH 025). Available at: https://www.ruh.nhs.uk/pathology/documents/clinical_guidelines/PATH_025_Liver_Function_Tests_in_Adults_A_Guide_for_GPs.pdf (ruh.nhs.uk)

An approach to interpreting urinalysis, particularly urine dipstick interpretation. Includes main differentials for each test on the dipstick, alongside tips on urine inspection prior to dipping, as well as potential next stepsPDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/assessment-or-interpretationConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Urinalysis? 0:21 Urine Inspection - Colour, Turbidity, Odour2:04 Urine Dipstick Process2:35 Urine Dipstick Interpretation7:25 Next StepsLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) explained, including pathophysiology, causes and a mnemonic for SLE symptoms (SOAP BRAIN MD). We also cover the EULAR / ACR diagnostic criteria for SLE, as well as SLE treatment. PDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps 0:00 What is SLE? (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)1:02 SLE Pathophysiology3:08 SLE Causes4:21 SLE Symptoms (SLE Mnemonic SOAP BRAIN MD)7:13 SLE Diagnosis (EULAR & ACR criteria)9:22 SLE TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Systemic lupus erythematosus – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/103Lupus Foundation of America (n.d.) The history of lupus. Lupus Foundation of America. Available at: https://www.lupus.org/resources/the-history-of-lupusEdRheum (n.d.) Systemic lupus erythematosus. EdRheum. Available at: https://edrheum.org/systemic-lupus/MSD Manual Professional Edition (2025) Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). MSD Manual Professional Edition. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/musculoskeletal-and-connective-tissue-disorders/systemic-rheumatic-diseases/systemic-lupus-erythematosus-slePlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

Postural Orthostatic Tachycardiac Syndrome (POTS) explained, including proposed pathophysiology, as well as different subtypes. We also review signs and symptoms of POTS, as well as POTS diagnosis and criteria as well as POTS treatment. PDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/cardiologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome?0:23 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Pathophysiology2:57 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Symptoms3:53 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Diagnosis5:07 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome TreatmentLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000308PoTS UK (n.d.) Home. PoTS UK. Available at: https://www.potsuk.org/Raj, S.R., Guzman, J.C., Harvey, P. et al. (2020) ‘Canadian Cardiovascular Society position statement on postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) and related disorders of chronic orthostatic intolerance’, Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 36(3), pp. 357–372. Available at: https://onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(19)31550-8/fulltextPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

Anaphylaxis explained including anaphylaxis pathophysiology (immunologic vs non immunologic), clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Includes recognition of airway compromise, use of intramuscular adrenaline (epinephrine), biphasic anaphylaxis, refractory anaphylaxis, and the immunology underlying type 1 hypersensitivity reactions. PDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/topicsConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Anaphylaxis?0:32 Anaphylaxis Pathophysiology4:08 Anaphylaxis Causes5:28 Anaphylaxis Symptoms7:44 Anaphylaxis Diagnosis8:32 Anaphylaxis TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Anaphylaxis – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/501British Society for Immunology (2021) Anaphylaxis. Available at: https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/immune-dysfunction/anaphylaxisRCEMLearning (2023) Anaphylaxis. Available at: https://www.rcemlearning.co.uk/reference/anaphylaxis/Simons, F.E.R., Ardusso, L.R.F., Bilo, M.B., El-Gamal, Y.M., Ledford, D.K., Ring, J., Sanchez-Borges, M., Senna, G.E., Sheikh, A. and Thong, B.Y. (2018) World Allergy Organization anaphylaxis guidance 2018. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 141(2), pp. 419–420.e1. Available at: https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(18)30571-2/fulltextTurner, P.J., Worm, M., Ansotegui, I.J. and El-Gamal, Y.M. (2024) IgE and non-IgE-mediated pathways in anaphylaxis. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12350582/Cardona, V., Ansotegui, I.J., Ebisawa, M., El-Gamal, Y., Fernandez Rivas, M., Fineman, S., Geller, M., Gonzalez-Estrada, A., Greenberger, P.A., Sanchez Borges, M., Senna, G., Sheikh, A. and Tanno, L.K. (2020) ‘World allergy organization anaphylaxis guidance 2020’, World Allergy Organization Journal, 13(10), p. 100472. doi:10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100472.Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Video Timestamps:0:00 What is Hereditary Angioedema?0:58 Causes of Angioedema1:49 Hereditary Angioedema Pathophysiology3:07 Hereditary Angioedema Types4:41 Hereditary Angioedema Symptoms6:29 Hereditary Angioedema Diagnosis7:29 Hereditary Angioedema TreatmentPlease remember this video and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. ReferencesPatient.info (2023) Hereditary angio-oedema. Available at: https://patient.info/doctor/dermatology/hereditary-angio-oedemaBritish Society for Immunology (n.d.) Angioedema due to acquired C1 inhibitor deficiency. Available at: https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/immune-dysfunction/angioedema-due-acquired-c1-inhibitorHAE UK (n.d.) Diagnosis and investigations. HAE UK. Available at: https://www.haeuk.org/what-is-hae/diagnosis-and-investigations/American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (2026) Immunomodulator medications. Available at: https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/drug-guide/immunomodulator-medicationsKnyaMed (n.d.) Angioedema vs edema. Available at: https://knyamed.com/blogs/difference-between/angioedema-vs-edemaDermNet (2025) Hereditary angioedema. DermNet NZ. Available at: https://dermnetnz.org/topics/hereditary-angioedemaBork, K., Wulff, K., Witzke, G., Machnig, T. and Hardt, J. (2020) ‘Treatment of patients with hereditary angioedema with the c.988A>G (p.Lys330Glu) variant in the plasminogen gene’, Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 15(1), p. 52. doi: 10.1186/s13023-020-1331-8.Dickeson, S.K., Kumar, S., Sun, M.F., Cheng, Q., Sclafani, S., Verhamme, I.M., Kenne, E., Müller-Esterl, W., Renné, T. and Gailani, D. (2022) ‘A mechanism for hereditary angioedema caused by a lysine 311–to–glutamic acid substitution in plasminogen’, Blood, 139(18), pp. 2816–2829. doi: 10.1182/blood.2021014167.Kozma, G.T., Gáll, Z., Hiripi, L., Bakk, E., Bodó, K., Varga, L. and Farkas, H. (2021) ‘Screening for plasminogen mutations in hereditary angioedema patients with normal C1-inhibitor levels’, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(6), p. 1162. doi: 10.3390/jcm10061162.Matafonov, A., Sun, M.F. and Gailani, D. (2022) ‘Bradykinin formation by mutant plasminogen’, Blood, 139(18), pp. 2732–2733. doi: 10.1182/blood.2022015967.Steinmüller-Magin, L., Wulff, K., Witzke, G., Bork, K. and Magerl, M. (2023) ‘Mutant plasminogen in hereditary angioedema is bypassing FXII/kallikrein to generate bradykinin’, Frontiers in Physiology, 13, p. 1090732. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1090732.Kaplan, A.P. (2019) ‘Hereditary angioedema: linking complement regulation to the coagulation system’, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 17(1), pp. 3–10. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6332742/

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer explained looking at the key differences in each including symptoms, diagnosis and treatment options. Includes Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia pathophysiology as well as epidemiology of both Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate cancer. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/urologyConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What are Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer? 0:44 Normal Prostate Anatomy1:51 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Pathophysiology2:46 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Symptoms4:10 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Epidemiology 5:09 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Diagnosis8:17 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Treatment10:10 Prostate Cancer TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2026) Benign prostatic hyperplasia. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/208BMJ Best Practice (2026) Prostate cancer. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/254MSD Manual (2021) Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/benign-prostate-disease/benign-prostatic-hyperplasiaMSD Manual (2025) Prostate cancer. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/oncology/genitourinary-cancers/prostate-cancerProstate Laser Center (2023) Prostate zones: what you should know. Prostate Laser Center. Available at: https://www.prostatelasercenter.com/blog/prostate-zones-what-you-should-know/Prostate Cancer UK (2025) PSA blood test. Prostate Cancer UK. Available at: https://prostatecanceruk.org/prostate-information-and-support/prostate-tests/psa-blood-testPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. #medicalmnemonic #medicalmnemonics #rhesusmedicine #studymedicine #studygram #medstudent #medicalschool

A look at topical steroid potency (including a memory tool to remember them), including topical steroid preparations. We also cover topical steroid effects and topical steroid withdrawal, as well as fingertip units. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/dermatologyPlease consider leaving a 5* review & subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What do Topical Steroids do?2:09 Topical Steroid Preparations4:06 Fingertip Units Explained4:45 Treatment Principles & Topical Steroid WithdrawalLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. #medicalmnemonic #medicalmnemonics #rhesusmedicine #studymedicine #studygram #medstudent #medicalschool