
Goat Glands, Chloroform, and the City That Saved Surgery
(How Edinburgh dragged American medicine out of the Wild West)
When we think about modern surgery, it’s easy to imagine it has always been clean, safe, and scientific. However, that could not be further from the truth. Surgery was more like a horror show just over 150 years ago. Patients faced unbearable pain, filthy instruments, and shocking guesswork.
Today, we’ll explore how the Scottish city of Edinburgh transformed surgery — and how America, for far too long, ignored the science in favor of quick fixes and fast profits. Along the way, we’ll meet heroes like James Young Simpson and Joseph Lister, as well as villains like John R. Brinkley and Willard Bliss. We’ll also see why modern “wellness influencers” aren’t so different from the quacks of the past.
Edinburgh: The Peak of Medical Science
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edinburgh was the world’s medical capital. Students from across Europe and the American colonies traveled there to study anatomy, surgery, and the latest medical theories.
Because of this, early American physicians like Benjamin Rush and John Morgan brought Edinburgh’s teachings home, helping to found the first U.S. medical school at the University of Pennsylvania. Harvard soon followed with a similar model.
However, while a few elite schools adopted Scottish standards, most of America remained a medical free-for-all. Outside major cities, anyone could call themselves a doctor, and “miracle cures” were everywhere. This was the true “Wild West” of medicine — long before the cowboy era we usually imagine.
James Young Simpson: Ending Pain in Surgery
Next, let’s fast-forward to the mid-1800s. At this time, one of the greatest problems in surgery was pain. Without anesthesia, operations had to be done quickly, often in less than a minute, and the suffering was unbearable.
That changed in 1846, when ether anesthesia was first used in Boston. News of ether’s success quickly crossed the Atlantic. By the time the next ship arrived in Edinburgh, surgeons were already experimenting with it — and looking for something even better.
Enter James Young Simpson, an obstetrician and, yes, one of my relatives. In 1847, Simpson discovered that chloroform worked better than ether and was easier to use. His famous breakthrough happened during a dinner party experiment, where he and his friends inhaled chloroform, passed out, and woke up amazed. Surgery would never be the same again.
Joseph Lister: Stopping Deadly Infections
Solving pain was one thing, but there was another huge problem: infection. After surgery, most patients didn’t die from the knife — they died from the germs they couldn’t see.
This is where Joseph Lister changed history. Influenced by Louis Pasteur’s germ theory, Lister realized that microorganisms caused infection. He began using carbolic acid to clean wounds and sterilize instruments. While some of his colleagues mocked him, the results spoke for themselves: surgical death rates plummeted.
Lister’s work eventually led to asepsis, the sterile environments we now take for granted in operating rooms.
America Ignored the Science — and a President Died
Unfortunately, the United States was slow to adopt these life-saving ideas. A tragic example is the death of President James Garfield in 1881. After being shot, Garfield’s wound was not fatal....
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