Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)

Postural Orthostatic Tachycardiac Syndrome (POTS) explained, including proposed pathophysiology, as well as different subtypes. We also review signs and symptoms of POTS, as well as POTS diagnosis and criteria as well as POTS treatment. PDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/cardiologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome?0:23 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Pathophysiology2:57 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Symptoms3:53 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Diagnosis5:07 Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome TreatmentLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000308PoTS UK (n.d.) Home. PoTS UK. Available at: https://www.potsuk.org/Raj, S.R., Guzman, J.C., Harvey, P. et al. (2020) ‘Canadian Cardiovascular Society position statement on postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) and related disorders of chronic orthostatic intolerance’, Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 36(3), pp. 357–372. Available at: https://onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(19)31550-8/fulltextPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

Anaphylaxis explained including anaphylaxis pathophysiology (immunologic vs non immunologic), clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Includes recognition of airway compromise, use of intramuscular adrenaline (epinephrine), biphasic anaphylaxis, refractory anaphylaxis, and the immunology underlying type 1 hypersensitivity reactions. PDFs available at: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/topicsConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Anaphylaxis?0:32 Anaphylaxis Pathophysiology4:08 Anaphylaxis Causes5:28 Anaphylaxis Symptoms7:44 Anaphylaxis Diagnosis8:32 Anaphylaxis TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Anaphylaxis – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/501British Society for Immunology (2021) Anaphylaxis. Available at: https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/immune-dysfunction/anaphylaxisRCEMLearning (2023) Anaphylaxis. Available at: https://www.rcemlearning.co.uk/reference/anaphylaxis/Simons, F.E.R., Ardusso, L.R.F., Bilo, M.B., El-Gamal, Y.M., Ledford, D.K., Ring, J., Sanchez-Borges, M., Senna, G.E., Sheikh, A. and Thong, B.Y. (2018) World Allergy Organization anaphylaxis guidance 2018. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 141(2), pp. 419–420.e1. Available at: https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(18)30571-2/fulltextTurner, P.J., Worm, M., Ansotegui, I.J. and El-Gamal, Y.M. (2024) IgE and non-IgE-mediated pathways in anaphylaxis. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12350582/Cardona, V., Ansotegui, I.J., Ebisawa, M., El-Gamal, Y., Fernandez Rivas, M., Fineman, S., Geller, M., Gonzalez-Estrada, A., Greenberger, P.A., Sanchez Borges, M., Senna, G., Sheikh, A. and Tanno, L.K. (2020) ‘World allergy organization anaphylaxis guidance 2020’, World Allergy Organization Journal, 13(10), p. 100472. doi:10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100472.Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Video Timestamps:0:00 What is Hereditary Angioedema?0:58 Causes of Angioedema1:49 Hereditary Angioedema Pathophysiology3:07 Hereditary Angioedema Types4:41 Hereditary Angioedema Symptoms6:29 Hereditary Angioedema Diagnosis7:29 Hereditary Angioedema TreatmentPlease remember this video and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. ReferencesPatient.info (2023) Hereditary angio-oedema. Available at: https://patient.info/doctor/dermatology/hereditary-angio-oedemaBritish Society for Immunology (n.d.) Angioedema due to acquired C1 inhibitor deficiency. Available at: https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/immune-dysfunction/angioedema-due-acquired-c1-inhibitorHAE UK (n.d.) Diagnosis and investigations. HAE UK. Available at: https://www.haeuk.org/what-is-hae/diagnosis-and-investigations/American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (2026) Immunomodulator medications. Available at: https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/drug-guide/immunomodulator-medicationsKnyaMed (n.d.) Angioedema vs edema. Available at: https://knyamed.com/blogs/difference-between/angioedema-vs-edemaDermNet (2025) Hereditary angioedema. DermNet NZ. Available at: https://dermnetnz.org/topics/hereditary-angioedemaBork, K., Wulff, K., Witzke, G., Machnig, T. and Hardt, J. (2020) ‘Treatment of patients with hereditary angioedema with the c.988A>G (p.Lys330Glu) variant in the plasminogen gene’, Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 15(1), p. 52. doi: 10.1186/s13023-020-1331-8.Dickeson, S.K., Kumar, S., Sun, M.F., Cheng, Q., Sclafani, S., Verhamme, I.M., Kenne, E., Müller-Esterl, W., Renné, T. and Gailani, D. (2022) ‘A mechanism for hereditary angioedema caused by a lysine 311–to–glutamic acid substitution in plasminogen’, Blood, 139(18), pp. 2816–2829. doi: 10.1182/blood.2021014167.Kozma, G.T., Gáll, Z., Hiripi, L., Bakk, E., Bodó, K., Varga, L. and Farkas, H. (2021) ‘Screening for plasminogen mutations in hereditary angioedema patients with normal C1-inhibitor levels’, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(6), p. 1162. doi: 10.3390/jcm10061162.Matafonov, A., Sun, M.F. and Gailani, D. (2022) ‘Bradykinin formation by mutant plasminogen’, Blood, 139(18), pp. 2732–2733. doi: 10.1182/blood.2022015967.Steinmüller-Magin, L., Wulff, K., Witzke, G., Bork, K. and Magerl, M. (2023) ‘Mutant plasminogen in hereditary angioedema is bypassing FXII/kallikrein to generate bradykinin’, Frontiers in Physiology, 13, p. 1090732. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1090732.Kaplan, A.P. (2019) ‘Hereditary angioedema: linking complement regulation to the coagulation system’, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 17(1), pp. 3–10. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6332742/

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer explained looking at the key differences in each including symptoms, diagnosis and treatment options. Includes Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia pathophysiology as well as epidemiology of both Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate cancer. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/urologyConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What are Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer? 0:44 Normal Prostate Anatomy1:51 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Pathophysiology2:46 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Symptoms4:10 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Epidemiology 5:09 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia vs Prostate Cancer Diagnosis8:17 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Treatment10:10 Prostate Cancer TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2026) Benign prostatic hyperplasia. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/208BMJ Best Practice (2026) Prostate cancer. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/254MSD Manual (2021) Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/benign-prostate-disease/benign-prostatic-hyperplasiaMSD Manual (2025) Prostate cancer. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/oncology/genitourinary-cancers/prostate-cancerProstate Laser Center (2023) Prostate zones: what you should know. Prostate Laser Center. Available at: https://www.prostatelasercenter.com/blog/prostate-zones-what-you-should-know/Prostate Cancer UK (2025) PSA blood test. Prostate Cancer UK. Available at: https://prostatecanceruk.org/prostate-information-and-support/prostate-tests/psa-blood-testPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. #medicalmnemonic #medicalmnemonics #rhesusmedicine #studymedicine #studygram #medstudent #medicalschool

A look at topical steroid potency (including a memory tool to remember them), including topical steroid preparations. We also cover topical steroid effects and topical steroid withdrawal, as well as fingertip units. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/dermatologyPlease consider leaving a 5* review & subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What do Topical Steroids do?2:09 Topical Steroid Preparations4:06 Fingertip Units Explained4:45 Treatment Principles & Topical Steroid WithdrawalLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. #medicalmnemonic #medicalmnemonics #rhesusmedicine #studymedicine #studygram #medstudent #medicalschool

Giant Cell Arteritis (Temporal Arteritis) explained, including pathophysiology and symptoms, as well as GCA diagnosis and treatment. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Giant Cell Arteritis?0:46 Giant Cell Arteritis Pathophysiology2:16 Giant Cell Arteritis Symptoms3:45 Giant Cell Arteritis Diagnosis4:33 Giant Cell Arteritis TreatmentLINK TO MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2025) Giant cell arteritis – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/177Red Whale (2026) Giant cell arteritis. Red Whale. Available at: https://www.redwhale.co.uk/content/giant-cell-arteritisPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. #medicalmnemonic #medicalmnemonics #rhesusmedicine #studymedicine #studygram #medstudent #medicalschool

Axial Spondyloarthritis (Ankylosing Spondylitis) explained, including the pathophysiology and most common clinical features, as well as Axial Spondyloarthritis diagnosis and treatment. Also includes diagnostic criteria. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Axial Spondyloarthritis?0:54 Axial Spondyloarthritis Pathophysiology2:29 Axial Spondyloarthritis Symptoms4:09 Axial Spondyloarthritis Diagnosis 6:03 Axial Spondyloarthritis Treatment LINK TO  MNEMONICS:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-XE7PiwGgE&list=PLGNSE_HvIV4t7a33bbHN1fq-j_tge0GmpLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesBMJ Best Practice (2024) Axial spondyloarthritis – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/366National Axial Spondyloarthritis Society (n.d.) What is axial spondyloarthritis? NASS. Available at: https://nass.co.uk/about-as/what-is-axialspa/MSD Manual Professional Edition (2024) Ankylosing spondylitis. MSD Manual Professional Edition. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/musculoskeletal-and-connective-tissue-disorders/joint-disorders/ankylosing-spondylitisPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

Rheumatoid Arthritis explained, including pathophysiology and typical signs and symptoms (extra articular too!). We also look at rheumatoid arthritis diagnosis (with rheumatoid factor / Anti CCP) and medications such as DMARDsPDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/rheumatologyConsider subscribing on YouTube (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Rheumatoid Arthritis?0:23 Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathophysiology 2:58 Rheumatoid Arthritis Symptoms5:16 Rheumatoid Arthritis Diagnosis 7:02 Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment LINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesMSD Manual Professional Edition (2025) Rheumatoid arthritis. MSD Manual Professional Edition. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/musculoskeletal-and-connective-tissue-disorders/joint-disorders/rheumatoid-arthritisBMJ Best Practice (2025) Rheumatoid arthritis – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/105Firestein GS, Budd RC, Gabriel SE, McInnes IB, O’Dell JR. Kelly and Firestein’s Textbook of Rheumatology. 11th ed. Elsevier; 2021.McInnes IB, Schett G. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2205–2219.Smolen JS, Aletaha D, McInnes IB. Rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet. 2016;388:2023–2038.Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S. Cellular and Molecular Immunology. 10th ed. Elsevier; 2021.Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 10th ed. Elsevier; 2020.Please remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice. 

A structure to the acute abdomen and acute abdominal pain - what is acute abdomen, what are the causes of acute abdomen and the differential diagnosis of acute abdominal pain? Acute abdomen examination (causes by location) as well as history and acute abdomen signs and symptoms. We also take a look at how an acute abdomen is managed. PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/general-surgeryConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Buy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is an acute abdomen? 0:23 Causes of acute abdomen / Causes of acute abdominal pain2:40 Diagnosis of acute abdomen / Diagnosis of acute abdominal pain - Causes of acute abdomen by location 4:35 Diagnosis of acute abdomen / Diagnosis of acute abdominal pain - History6:40 Acute abdomen physical exam / Acute abdominal pain physical exam8:17 Diagnosis of acute abdomen / Diagnosis of acute abdominal pain - Labs and Imaging10:01 Treatment of acute abdomen / Treatment of acute abdominal painLINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/Disclaimer: Please remember this video and all content from Rhesus Medicine is for educational and entertainment purposes only and is not a guide to diagnose or to treat any form of condition. The content is not to be used to guide clinical practice and is not medical advice. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice.ReferencesMSD Manuals Professional Edition (2025) Acute abdominal pain. Reviewed/Revised Jul 2024; Modified Jul 2024. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/acute-abdomen-and-surgical-gastroenterology/acute-abdominal-pain BMJ Best Practice (2025) Evaluation of acute abdomen. Last reviewed: 23 Dec 2025; Last updated: 22 Jul 2025. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/503 BMJ Best Practice (2025) Acute appendicitis: symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Last reviewed: 27 Dec 2025; Last updated: 17 Apr 2025. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/290 BMJ Best Practice (2025) Imaging and investigations for abdominal pain. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/787/diagnosis-approach NICE Guidelines NG156 (2025) Abdominal aortic aneurysm: diagnosis and management. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng156/chapter/recommendations

Tuberculosis (TB) explained clearly, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis features and transmission, as well as tuberculosis pathophysiology. We also look at tuberculosis symptoms (pulmonary and extrapulmonary), as well as diagnosis (including tuberculin / Mantoux) and treatment.PDFs available here: https://rhesusmedicine.com/pages/microbiology-and-infectious-diseaseConsider subscribing (if you found any of the info useful!): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCRks8wB6vgz0E7buP0L_5RQ?sub_confirmation=1Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/rhesusmedicineBuy Us A Coffee!: https://www.buymeacoffee.com/rhesusmedicineTimestamps:0:00 What is Tuberculosis? 0:32 Tuberculosis Microbiology2:44 Tuberculosis Pathophysiology5:50 Tuberculosis Symptoms (Pulmonary Tuberculosis) 6:40 Tuberculosis Symptoms (Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis) 9:13 Tuberculosis Diagnosis11:55 Tuberculosis Treatment LINK TO SOCIAL MEDIA: https://www.instagram.com/rhesusmedicine/ReferencesMSD Manual Professional Edition (2025) Tuberculosis (TB). MSD Manual Professional Edition. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb#Treatment_v1010798BMJ Best Practice (2025) Pulmonary tuberculosis – Management approach. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/165/management-approachCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (2024) About Bovine Tuberculosis in Humans. CDC. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/tb/about/m-bovis.htmlBMJ Best Practice (2025) Tuberculosis – Epidemiology. BMJ Best Practice. Available at: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/166/epidemiologyMSD Manual Professional Edition (2025) Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis (TB). MSD Manual Professional Edition. Available at: https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/extrapulmonary-tuberculosis-tbWikipedia (2025) Tuberculosis. Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TuberculosisRadiopaedia (2025) Ghon lesion | Radiology Reference Article. Radiopaedia.org. Available at: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/ghon-lesion?lang=gbPlease remember this podcast and all content from Rhesus Medicine is meant for educational purposes only and should not be used as a guide to diagnose or to treat. Please consult a healthcare professional for medical advice.