FRANKOPAN7.mp3 - The Age of Turbulence (1870–1920), Resource Extraction, and Global Migration Peter Frankopan | The Earth Transformed: An Untold History The Age of Turbulence (1870–1920) involved rapid technological growth (telegraph, refrigerated shippin

1783 Inquiry Fails to Resolve Cause; Historians Exonerate Washington Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution In October 1783, General Guy Carleton convened an inquiry to determine if the fire was accidental or by design, questioning witnesses about sabotage and combustibles. However, no summary opinion was reached. The unique records of this inquiry were found not in the British archives but in the clerk's private papers, donated in 1893. Early American memoirists like Joseph Henry concluded Americans were responsible, arguing that even "great countries can do bad deeds." However, influential historians like Washington Irving later strove to exonerate George Washington, blaming apolitical "miscreants" instead. Retry

Washington Acknowledges Captains Circumstantially Linked to the Arson Plot Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution Three Continental captains were circumstantially linked to the arson: Amos Fellows (died in prison, possibly caught with incendiary materials), Abraham Van Dyck (accused of planning the fire by the British, later recommended for a captaincy by Washington), and Abraham Patten (spy who confessed on the gallows in 1777 to setting the fire). Following Patten's death, Washington eulogized him, and Congress awarded funds to his widow, suggesting recognition for his services. Washington never admitted ordering the fire but thought it beneficial, stating "Providence or some good honest fellow has done what we didn't think to do for ourselves."

The Information War Begins: Generals Avoid Written Mention of the Devastating Fire Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution The fire quickly ignited an "information war." Robert Morris and Benjamin Franklin urged their European emissaries to spread the narrative that Americans were innocent and highlighted British atrocities. Despite the information war, General Howe, when writing to Washington days later, complained about "dastardly acts" like doctored bullets but avoided mentioning the fire itself. Washington likewise omitted the topic from his correspondence. Both sides competed for public opinion: the British press insisting Americans were responsible, and the American press denying guilt and emphasizing arbitrary hangings like Wright White's.

Missing Inquest Records and Washington's Denial Fuel 250-Year Mystery Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution Immediately after the fire, the British detained many as suspected arsonists, often for possessing "combustibles" (long matches, turpentine, gunpowder). George Washington publicly denied knowledge, writing that they had "no idea how this happened." Crucially, there is no document where anyone confessed at the time. General Howe's inquiry records were lost in a fire in Ireland in 1826, and prisoner records were lost at sea in 1780, leaving key evidence missing. Nathan Hale, executed the next day for spying, has often been historically associated with the fire due to the timing.

Sabotage, Targeted Churches, and Arbitrary Executions Cloud the Fire's Intent Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution Evidence suggesting the fire was deliberate includes eyewitness reports of sabotage of pumps and bucket handles, preventing effective firefighting. Furthermore, witnesses observed the burning of Trinity Church (Church of England) while dissenting churches were reportedly spared, suggesting anti-Crown targeting. General Robertson claimed he fought the fire aggressively, diverting it up Broadway to save the vital eastern commercial district. In the chaos, British soldiers conducted summary executions, bayoneting or throwing suspected incendiaries into burning buildings, including the loyalist carpenter Wright White.

ls planned arson. Midnight Ignition and Multiple Points of Fire Suggest Design in the Great New York Fire Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution The fire started between midnight and 1:00 a.m. on September 21, 1776, near Whitehall Slip. One version suggests an accidental fire started by "careless drunkards" in a tavern. However, British observers on warships reported multiple, relatively simultaneous points of ignition (up to 20 points), strongly suggesting rebel saboteurs. Civilian governance had deteriorated; the fire chief feared rebel arson. Firefighting efforts were hindered because the city's bells had been removed for cannons, and equipment was in disarray.

The Debate to Burn New York: Washington Regrets Obeying Congressional Order Against Arson Professor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution Following defeat at Long Island, Washington's forces escaped to Manhattan. The British Howe brothers hesitated, offering pardons and hoping for reconciliation. The debate over burning intensified: General Nathanael Greene advocated burning (September 5), but Congress President John Hancock ordered Washington to prevent it (September 6). Washington later confessed this refusal was a "terrible error," as burning would have deprived the British of critical winter quarters. Although Americans publicly blamed the British, rebels had previously burned Norfolk, Virginia. Loyalists circulated rumors that rebels planned arson.

George Washington Arrives in Depopulated New York City, Debating the Burning of the Rebel AnchorProfessor Benjamin L. Carp, Professor of History at Brooklyn College and the CUNY Graduate Center | The Great New York Fire of 1776: A Lost Story of the American Revolution In spring 1776, George Washington arrived in New York City, the colonies' second-largest town, finding it small (25,000 people) and politically divided. Two-thirds of the population had fled anticipating conflict. Washington controlled the urbanized area south of Canal Street, occupied by his Continental Army, which he described as ill-disciplined. Before the fire, Washington privately believed burning the city was a good idea to deprive the British of winter quarters. The central question remains: was the fire accidental or by design?

FRANKOPAN8.mp3 - Unsustainable Modern Consumption and the Need for Knowledge Professor Peter Frankopan | The Earth Transformed: An Untold History This segment addresses modern civilization's unsustainable consumption. One cotton shirt requires 2,700 liters of fresh water—equivalent to two and a half years of drinking water for one person. The global fashion industry accounts for 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions. Global food waste is immense, with 930 million tons wasted annually, often due to consumer demands for "perfect" produce. Advanced civilization is described as brittle, relying on constant luck, and when failures occur, the most vulnerable suffer disproportionately. The author concludes that education is crucial to provide the knowledge necessary to understand these resource cycles and implement sustainable practices.

FRANKOPAN7.mp3 - The Age of Turbulence (1870–1920), Resource Extraction, and Global Migration Peter Frankopan | The Earth Transformed: An Untold History The Age of Turbulence (1870–1920) involved rapid technological growth (telegraph, refrigerated shipping) and intense extractive empire building. Empires monetized resources like rubber, transplanted from the Amazon and causing massive deforestation in the Malay Peninsula. Global economic integration meant US grain could be shipped to London more cheaply than Irish grain. While historical focus is often Eurocentric, migration in the Indo-Pacific region (e.g., India to Southeast Asia) exceeded transatlantic migration, creating current geopolitical sensitivities. British infrastructure in India, such as railroads, aimed primarily at administrative efficiency. Furthermore, irrigation projects often failed, causing soil salinity due to rapid water evaporation in high temperatures. Scientific awareness of global warming predated the 1883 Krakatoa eruption.