Agency and Partnership Part Seven: Limited Partnerships and Limited-Liability Variants

Understanding the Complexities of General Partnership Formation and LiabilityThis conversation provides an in-depth exploration of general partnership law, focusing on the complexities of partnership formation, liability, fiduciary duties, and the evolution of partnership structures. The discussion emphasizes the importance of understanding the legal implications of partnerships, including the risks involved and the distinctions between different types of partnerships, such as general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Key themes include the nature of partnership relationships, the responsibilities of partners, and the legal frameworks that govern these entities.In the intricate world of business law, the formation and management of partnerships can be a minefield of potential liabilities and legal traps. This blog post explores the nuances of general partnerships, a common yet often misunderstood business entity.Introduction: The Wild West of Business LawGeneral partnerships are frequently referred to as the "default" business entity, but this term can be misleading. Unlike the default settings on your phone, which are designed for safety and ease, general partnerships are fraught with personal liability risks and legal complexities. This post aims to unpack these challenges, providing insights for law students, bar exam candidates, and business owners alike.Formation: The Unseen TrapsA general partnership can be formed without any formal agreement, simply through the conduct of the parties involved. This means that even without intending to, individuals can find themselves in a binding legal relationship that exposes their personal assets to risk. The Uniform Partnership Act (UPA) and the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (RUPA) provide the legal framework, but understanding the friction between these laws is crucial for navigating potential pitfalls.Liability: The Joint and Several ConundrumOne of the most daunting aspects of general partnerships is the concept of joint and several liability. This means that each partner can be held personally liable for the entire debt of the partnership, regardless of their individual share. The RUPA offers some protection through the "exhaustion rule," requiring creditors to first seek repayment from the partnership's assets. However, in jurisdictions following the older UPA, creditors can directly target individual partners.Conclusion: Navigating the Legal LandscapeThe evolution of partnership law reflects a balancing act between flexibility and protection. As business law continues to evolve, understanding these legal frameworks is essential for anyone involved in a partnership. Whether you're a law student preparing for exams or a business owner managing a partnership, staying informed about these legal intricacies can help mitigate risks and ensure a more secure business environment.Subscribe NowStay updated with the latest insights in business law by subscribing to our newsletter. Don't miss out on expert analysis and practical advice to navigate the legal landscape of partnerships.TakeawaysThe general partnership is often called the default business entity, but it is misleadingly dangerous.Intent to form a partnership is based on conduct, not subjective intent.Profit sharing is prima facie evidence of partnership under UPA.Partnership by estoppel can create liability without a formal partnership.In a general partnership, all partners are jointly and severally liable for debts.The default rule for profit sharing is equality, regardless of contribution.Service partners must contract around default rules to protect their interests.Fiduciary duties require partners to act in the best interest of the partnership.Every partner has authority to act on behalf of the partnership unless limitedgeneral partnership, business law, liability, partnership formation, fiduciary duties, limited partnership, LLP, UPA, RUPA, agency law

Navigating the Complexities of Partnership Law: A Deep DiveThis conversation delves into the complexities of agency and partnership law, focusing on the implications of personal liability for partners, the processes of dissociation and dissolution, and the importance of understanding these concepts for legal exams. The discussion highlights the tension between the entity and aggregate views of partnerships, the rules governing authority and liability, and practical strategies for navigating partnership law effectively.In the world of business, partnerships can be both a boon and a bane. Our latest podcast episode delves into the intricate world of partnership law, shedding light on the risks and responsibilities that partners face. From understanding the entity and aggregate views of partnerships to navigating the procedural nuances of dissociation and dissolution, this episode is a must-listen for anyone involved in or considering a partnership.Understanding Liability and DissolutionOne of the key takeaways from our discussion is the concept of joint and several liability. This principle means that each partner is individually responsible for the entire debt of the partnership, a sobering thought for many. We also explore the dissolution process, emphasizing the importance of a well-drafted partnership agreement to mitigate potential conflicts and ensure a smooth transition when partners decide to part ways.The Role of a Partnership AgreementA partnership agreement is not just a formality; it's a critical tool that outlines the rights and responsibilities of each partner. It serves as a roadmap for resolving disputes and provides a framework for the dissolution process. Our episode highlights the need for clarity and precision in these agreements to protect all parties involved.Partnerships offer unique opportunities for collaboration and growth, but they also come with significant risks. By understanding the legal landscape and preparing accordingly, partners can navigate these challenges effectively. Tune in to our podcast for a comprehensive guide to partnership law and learn how to protect your interests in a partnership.Subscribe NowStay informed and empowered by subscribing to our podcast. Don't miss out on future episodes that delve into the legal intricacies of business and beyond.TakeawaysPartnership law creates personal liability for partners.The fundamental question in partnerships is who pays the bills.RUPA introduces significant changes to partnership liability.Authority in partnerships can bind the entire firm.Vicarious liability holds partnerships accountable for partners' actions.Dissociation does not always lead to dissolution of the partnership.The winding up process is critical for closing a partnership.Understanding the difference between joint and several liability is essential.Exam strategies include recognizing common traps and errors.A well-drafted partnership agreement is crucial for managing risks.agency, partnership, liability, contracts, torts, dissociation, dissolution, RUPA, legal education, law exams

Understanding the Inadvertent General Partnership: A Deep Dive into RUPAThis conversation delves into the complexities of partnership law, focusing on the formation, governance, and liabilities associated with partnerships. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (RUPA) and the implications of being in a partnership, including fiduciary duties and the risks of unlimited personal liability. The discussion also highlights the need for clear agreements to avoid unintended partnerships and the potential pitfalls of informal arrangements.In the latest episode of our podcast, we delve into the complexities of general partnerships, focusing on the Revised Uniform Partnership Act (RUPA). This discussion is crucial for anyone involved in or considering a partnership, as it highlights the potential pitfalls and legal intricacies that can arise.Formation and Governance: General partnerships are unique in that they can form inadvertently, simply through the actions and agreements of the parties involved. Unlike corporations, which require formal documentation and state approval, partnerships can arise from a handshake or a verbal agreement. This informality, while convenient, can lead to significant legal challenges if not properly managed.The Risks of Inadvertent Partnerships: One of the most significant risks discussed is the inadvertent partnership. This occurs when individuals engage in business activities that, under RUPA, qualify as a partnership, even if the parties did not intend to form one. The implications are severe, as partners can be held personally liable for the actions of the partnership, including debts and legal obligations.The Importance of a Partnership Agreement: To mitigate these risks, the episode emphasizes the importance of drafting a comprehensive partnership agreement. Such an agreement can outline the roles, responsibilities, and liabilities of each partner, providing a clear framework for governance and decision-making. Without this, partners are subject to RUPA's default rules, which may not align with their intentions or best interests.Conclusion: The episode serves as a critical reminder of the legal complexities inherent in partnerships. By understanding RUPA and proactively drafting a partnership agreement, individuals can protect themselves from unintended liabilities and ensure a more stable and predictable business relationship.Subscribe now to stay informed about the latest insights in business law and partnership management.TakeawaysPartnerships can form unintentionally through conduct, not just intent.RUPA provides default rules that apply when no agreement exists.Partners share profits equally unless otherwise stated in an agreement.Partners are jointly and severally liable for partnership debts.Fiduciary duties are critical in maintaining trust among partners.The duty of loyalty cannot be waived in a partnership agreement.Partners can be liable for each other's actions in the ordinary course of business.Dissolution of a partnership requires proper notice to avoid lingering authority.A well-drafted partnership agreement is essential for protection.The gig economy poses risks of inadvertent partnerships. partnership law, agency, governance, fiduciary duties, liability, RUPA, business structure, partnership formation, legal obligations, partnership dissolution

Understanding Principal Liability: A Deep Dive into Agency LawThis conversation delves into the complexities of principal liability in agency law, covering contractual and tort liability, the role of independent contractors, and the implications of modern technology such as AI. The discussion emphasizes the importance of understanding authority, the distinctions between actual and apparent authority, and the legal principles governing vicarious liability. It also highlights the evolving landscape of agency law in the context of AI agents and their potential impact on liability.In the intricate world of agency law, understanding principal liability is crucial. This area of law is not just about assigning blame but about determining who bears the financial burden when things go awry in business relationships. Let's explore the key concepts and cases that shape this field.The Core Concepts: Principal liability revolves around two main paths: contracts and torts. The central question in contracts is whether the agent had authority. Authority can be actual, based on the internal relationship between principal and agent, or apparent, based on the principal's actions towards third parties. In torts, the focus shifts to the doctrine of respondeat superior, which holds employers liable for their employees' actions within the scope of employment.Key Cases and Doctrines: The Mill Street Church of Christ v. Hogan case illustrates implied actual authority, where past conduct and job necessity justified an agent's actions. Meanwhile, the Watteau v. Fenwick case introduces inherent agency power, holding principals liable for agents' usual business acts, even if expressly forbidden.Modern Implications: As we move into an era of AI agents, traditional doctrines face new challenges. The control test becomes complex when dealing with autonomous systems. The inherent agency power doctrine might see a resurgence as AI takes on roles traditionally held by human agents.Conclusion: Understanding principal liability requires a grasp of authority, control, and the evolving landscape of agency law. As technology advances, these principles will continue to adapt, shaping the future of legal responsibility.Subscribe now to stay updated on the latest in agency law and its implications in the modern world.TakeawaysThe entire analysis hinges on one single word, authority.Authority is a tree with very specific branches.Actual authority is about the internal perspective between principal and agent.Implied actual authority acknowledges the reality of job requirements.Apparent authority focuses on what the third party believes.An agent cannot bootstrap their own authority.The principal is liable for torts committed by employees under respondeat superior.Independent contractors generally do not create liability for the principal.Exceptions to independent contractor liability include inherently dangerous activities.The rise of AI agents raises new questions about liability and control.principal liability, agency law, contractual liability, tort liability, independent contractors, authority, apparent authority, ratification, respondeat superior, AI agents

Unlocking the Core of Agency Law: Fiduciary DutiesIn this episode of "The Deep Dive," the hosts transition from the mechanical aspects of agency law to the philosophical underpinnings of fiduciary duties. He emphasizes the importance of understanding fiduciary duty as the moral and structural core of the agency relationship, likening it to the steering wheel and brakes of a vehicle. The discussion centers around the three primary fiduciary duties: loyalty, care, and obedience, highlighting their implications and the severe consequences of breaches. The hosts explain that fiduciary duty is not merely a contractual obligation but a legal shield designed to protect principals from potential abuses of power by agents, emphasizing the need for transparency and trust in business relationships.The episode delves into the nuances of each duty, particularly the duty of loyalty, which prohibits agents from serving conflicting interests and mandates full disclosure of any potential conflicts. The conversation also covers the duty of care, which focuses on the competence and diligence expected from agents, and the duty of obedience, which requires agents to follow lawful instructions from their principals. The hosts concluded by discussing the remedies available for breaches of fiduciary duty, including disgorgement of profits, emphasizing the law's protective stance towards principals in agency relationships.TakeawaysFiduciary duty is the moral and structural core of the agency relationship.The law imposes strict rules to prevent agents from even entertaining the thought of betrayal.Liability can exist without demonstrable harm to the principal; the focus is on the agent's gain, not the principal's loss.Secrecy in transactions is a hallmark of breach; transparency is essential.The duty of care is about competence and diligence, while the duty of loyalty is about faithfulness and avoiding conflicts.agency law, fiduciary duties, duty of loyalty, duty of care, legal remedies, business ethics, trust in business, agency relationship, law school, bar exam

Understanding Agency Law: Navigating the Doctrine of AuthorityIn this episode, we delve into the complexities of agency law, focusing on the doctrine of authority as outlined in Part Two of the Agency and Partnership Guide. The discussion begins with a vivid scenario that highlights the potential pitfalls of agency relationships, particularly when an agent acts beyond their authority. The conversation emphasizes the critical legal question of whether an agent's actions can bind the principal to a contract, even if the agent acted without explicit permission. The hosts break down the various types of authority—actual, apparent, estoppel, inherent, and ratification—explaining how each plays a role in determining liability and protecting the interests of both principals and third parties. They also explore the nuances of how authority can be created, modified, or terminated, and the implications of these changes in real-world business scenarios.In the world of business, the concept of agency law is pivotal, especially when it comes to understanding the doctrine of authority. Imagine a scenario where an agent, perhaps a mid-level manager, signs a contract that the principal never authorized. This situation is not just a nightmare for business owners but a real-world example of the complexities involved in agency relationships.The Core of Agency LawAt the heart of agency law is the question of authority. When is a principal legally bound by the actions of their agent? The answer lies in understanding the different types of authority: actual, apparent, and inherent. Actual authority is straightforward, based on the principal's direct communication with the agent. However, apparent authority, which arises from the principal's manifestations to third parties, often leads to legal challenges. Inherent authority, on the other hand, is tied to the role itself, protecting third parties from unauthorized actions by agents.Real-World ImplicationsThe podcast episode delves into real-world cases, such as the infamous Watteau v. Fenwick, where a principal was held liable for an agent's unauthorized purchase. These examples highlight the importance of understanding the nuances of agency law and the potential legal implications for principals.For business owners and legal professionals alike, mastering the intricacies of agency law is crucial. It not only helps in navigating potential legal pitfalls but also ensures that the rights and responsibilities of all parties involved are clearly understood. As the podcast episode suggests, the key to avoiding legal troubles lies in a thorough understanding of the doctrine of authority and its application in real-world scenarios.Subscribe NowStay informed and protect your business by subscribing to our podcast for more insights into agency law and other legal topics.TakeawaysAgency relationships can create significant liability risks for principals.Actual authority is based on the principal's direct communication to the agent.Apparent authority arises from the principal's representations to third parties.Estoppel protects third parties when principals fail to act against unauthorized agents.Ratification allows principals to retroactively approve unauthorized actions taken by agents.agency law, authority doctrine, actual authority, apparent authority, estoppel, inherent authority, ratification, business law, legal liability, contract law

Understanding Agency Law: The Backbone of Business OperationsIn this episode of "The Deep Dive," the hosts explore the intricate world of agency law, which serves as the foundational framework for understanding business relationships. They emphasize that agency law is often overlooked in legal studies, yet it is crucial for grasping how corporations operate and how liability is assigned in various scenarios. Through a hypothetical example involving a wealthy investor and a hot dog cart operator, the hosts break down the essential elements of agency relationships: consent, benefit, and control. He explains how these elements create a legal bond that allows one party (the agent) to act on behalf of another (the principal). The discussion delves into the nuances of actual and apparent authority, highlighting the importance of how these concepts affect liability in contracts and torts. The hosts illustrate these principles with engaging examples, such as the classic rogue agent scenario and the implications of misclassifying employees versus independent contractors. The episode concludes with a systematic approach for analyzing agency law questions, emphasizing the need for clarity in understanding the roles and responsibilities within agency relationships, especially in the context of modern business practices.Imagine a world where businesses operate without a clear understanding of agency relationships. This episode of our podcast dives into the foundational aspects of agency law, using the engaging scenario of 'Big Boss' and 'Benny' to illustrate how these relationships are formed and their implications for businesses.The Essence of Agency Relationships: Agency law is the invisible operating system of the business world. It defines the relationship between a principal and an agent, where the agent acts on behalf of the principal. This relationship is built on three pillars: consent, control, and benefit. Without these, the agency relationship crumbles, much like a stool missing a leg.Consent and Control: Consent is not about what's in someone's head but about objective manifestations. It's about what a reasonable person would perceive based on actions. Control, on the other hand, is the principal's right to dictate the ultimate goal, not the minutiae of how tasks are performed. This distinction is crucial in differentiating between an agent and an independent contractor.Employee vs. Independent Contractor: The legal distinction between employees and independent contractors is pivotal. Employees are under the principal's control regarding the manner and means of work, while independent contractors are hired to achieve a result. This classification affects liability, taxes, and fundamental rights, making it a critical aspect of business operations.Conclusion: Agency law is not just a legal concept but a practical necessity for businesses. It ensures that the right people are held accountable and that businesses operate smoothly. As we continue to explore the intricacies of agency law, remember that understanding these relationships is key to navigating the complex world of business.Subscribe now to stay updated on our latest episodes and insights into the world of business law.TakeawaysAgency law is the invisible operating system of business.You cannot understand liability without first establishing an agency relationship.The law looks at substance, not form, in agency relationships.agency law, business law, liability, contracts, torts, independent contractor, employee classification, legal relationships, consent, control

Navigating the Complexities of the First Amendment's Religion ClausesIn this episode of the deep dive, we explore the complexities of the First Amendment's religion clauses, focusing on the Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause. The discussion begins with the historical context and the evolving interpretations of these clauses, particularly the shift from the Lemon Test to a more historical analysis in modern jurisprudence. The hosts emphasized the importance of understanding the tension between government non-involvement in religion and the protection of individual religious practices, highlighting key cases that illustrate this dynamic.The conversation delves into significant Supreme Court rulings, including the implications of Employment Division v. Smith, which altered the standard of review for free exercise claims, and the subsequent legislative responses like the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) and the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA). The episode concludes with a discussion on the current landscape of religious freedoms, the shrinking 'play in the joints' between the two clauses, and the potential future of government involvement in religious matters, leaving listeners with thought-provoking questions about the balance of these constitutional rights.The First Amendment's religion clauses, the Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause, form a cornerstone of constitutional law, presenting a complex interplay between government neutrality and religious freedom. This blog post delves into the historical and modern interpretations of these clauses, exploring key legal tests like the Lemon Test and significant court cases that have shaped the current legal landscape.Understanding the Establishment ClauseHistorically, the Establishment Clause was interpreted through the lens of strict separation between church and state, epitomized by the Lemon Test. This three-pronged test evaluated whether a law had a secular purpose, its primary effect neither advanced nor inhibited religion, and it avoided excessive government entanglement with religion. However, modern jurisprudence has shifted towards a historical practices approach, examining whether government actions align with practices common at the nation's founding.The Free Exercise Clause: A Roller Coaster of Legal StandardsThe Free Exercise Clause has undergone significant changes, from the protective Sherbert-Yoder framework to the more restrictive Employment Division v. Smith decision. The latter established that neutral laws of general applicability do not violate the Free Exercise Clause, even if they incidentally burden religious practices. However, recent cases have introduced exceptions, allowing for strict scrutiny when laws target religion or provide secular exemptions but not religious ones.Balancing Act: The Courts' RoleCourts are tasked with balancing the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses, ensuring government neutrality while protecting religious freedom. This delicate act involves navigating the "play in the joints," the space where government action is neither required nor prohibited by the clauses. As legal interpretations evolve, the tension between these principles continues to shape the landscape of religious freedom in the United States.The First Amendment's religion clauses remain a dynamic and challenging area of constitutional law. Understanding the historical context, key legal tests, and significant court cases is essential for navigating this complex field. As the legal landscape continues to evolve, the balance between government neutrality and religious freedom will remain a pivotal issue for courts and legal scholars alike.First Amendment, Establishment Clause, Free Exercise Clause, Lemon Test, RFRA, constitutional law, Supreme Court, religious freedoms, legal analysis, law exam

Understanding the Mechanics of First Amendment ScrutinyIn this episode of "The Deep Dive," the hosts tackle the complexities of the First Amendment, focusing on fundamental freedoms of speech and association. He emphasizes that while the text of the Constitution appears absolute, the reality is far more intricate, requiring a mechanical understanding of legal principles. The hosts introduced a structured approach to analyzing speech-related cases, breaking down the process into modules that cover general principles, unprotected categories, symbolic speech, and the forum doctrine.They highlight the importance of distinguishing between content-based and content-neutral regulations, explaining the levels of scrutiny that apply to each. Throughout the discussion, they provide practical examples and case law to illustrate these concepts, ultimately aiming to equip listeners with a solid framework for understanding and applying First Amendment principles in legal contexts.In the realm of constitutional law, the First Amendment stands as a beacon of freedom, yet its application is anything but straightforward. As we delve into the intricacies of First Amendment scrutiny, we uncover a labyrinth of doctrines that govern speech and association.The Complexity of Free Speech: Many approach the First Amendment with the belief that it grants absolute freedom of speech. However, the reality is far more nuanced. The Supreme Court has established a framework that categorizes speech and applies varying levels of scrutiny based on content and context. This diagnostic approach is akin to a flowchart, guiding legal minds through the maze of constitutional analysis.Content-Based vs. Content-Neutral: A pivotal distinction in First Amendment scrutiny is whether a law is content-based or content-neutral. Content-based laws, which target the message itself, are subject to strict scrutiny—a rigorous test that few laws survive. In contrast, content-neutral laws, which regulate the mechanics of speech, face intermediate scrutiny, allowing for more governmental leeway.Unprotected Categories: Certain types of speech, such as incitement, obscenity, and true threats, fall outside the protective umbrella of the First Amendment. These unprotected categories allow the government to regulate speech that poses a direct threat to public safety or morality.The Role of Expressive Association: The right to associate, though not explicitly stated in the Constitution, is a fundamental aspect of free speech. This right encompasses both the freedom to join with others to amplify a message and the freedom to exclude those who might dilute that message. The balance between association rights and anti-discrimination laws remains a contentious issue in constitutional law.Navigating the complexities of First Amendment scrutiny requires a structured approach. By understanding the distinctions between content-based and content-neutral laws, recognizing unprotected categories, and appreciating the role of expressive association, legal practitioners can effectively analyze and argue First Amendment cases. As we continue to explore the boundaries of free speech, the principles of tolerance and robust debate remain at the heart of our constitutional framework.Takeaways'You have to treat it like a flow chart.''The government needs a really, really good reason.''The cardinal sin of the First Amendment is viewpoint discrimination.''The First Amendment prefers tolerance over coercion.''If you follow that path, you won't get lost in the weeds of your own feelings about the speech.'First Amendment, freedom of speech, freedom of association, legal analysis, constitutional law, speech regulation, unprotected speech, case law, legal framework, exam strategy

Exploring the Equal Protection Clause: From Historical Roots to AI ChallengesIn this episode the hosts tackle the complexities of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, a cornerstone of American constitutional law. The discussion begins with the significance of this clause, which serves as a critical tool for civil rights and has implications for various legal issues, from school segregation to marriage equality. The hosts emphasized the importance of understanding the legal framework surrounding equal protection, particularly for law students preparing for exams. The conversation delves into the nuances of the clause, including the different tiers of scrutiny—strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, and rational basis review—each with its own standards and implications for how laws are evaluated in terms of discrimination.The hosts explore the historical context of the Equal Protection Clause, its application to various classifications such as race, gender, and alienage, and the evolving nature of these legal interpretations in the face of modern challenges, including the rise of AI and algorithmic decision-making. The discussion highlights the tension between anti-classification and anti-subordination principles, particularly in the context of affirmative action and the implications of using algorithms that may inadvertently perpetuate discrimination. The episode concludes with a call to action for listeners to consider the future of equal protection in an era where discrimination may become less visible, raising critical questions about the relevance and adaptability of existing legal frameworks.The Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment stands as a cornerstone of American constitutional law, shaping the landscape of civil rights from school segregation to marriage equality. In our latest podcast episode, we delve into this complex legal doctrine, unraveling its historical significance and examining its evolving role in today's world.The Historical FoundationThe 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, was designed to address racial discrimination against newly freed slaves. Early cases like Strauder v. West Virginia set the stage for its application, striking down laws that blatantly discriminated based on race. Over time, the doctrine evolved, embracing the anti-classification principle, which demands that the government remain colorblind in its policies.Modern Implications and AI ParadoxAs we navigate the 21st century, the Equal Protection Clause faces new challenges, particularly in the realm of artificial intelligence and algorithms. The episode highlights the tension between anti-classification and anti-subordination principles, as AI systems inadvertently perpetuate societal biases. The paradox emerges when attempts to correct these biases trigger strict scrutiny, potentially stifling efforts to achieve equity.The Need for Legal EvolutionThe discussion underscores the urgent need for legal evolution to address the complexities of algorithmic bias. As discrimination becomes increasingly invisible, buried within code, the traditional legal frameworks may fall short. The question looms: will the courts adapt to this new reality, or will the doctrine remain tethered to its historical roots?The Equal Protection Clause remains a vital tool in the fight for civil rights, but its application must evolve to meet the challenges of our digital age. As we ponder the future of this doctrine, we invite you to join us in exploring these critical issues and their implications for the next generation of lawyers and judges.Subscribe now.Equal Protection Clause, 14th Amendment, constitutional law, civil rights, tiers of scrutiny, strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, rational basis review, discrimination, AI algorithmsEqual Protection Clause, 14th Amendment, constitutional law, civil rights, tiers of scrutiny, strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, rational basis review, discrimination