The Herbarium Hour

Type 2 diabetes and the botanical consensus statement Dr Luke Iggulden wrote in 2016, starting with goat's rue (Galega officinalis), whose guanidine alkaloid galegine led chemists to metformin.The episode opens with the disease itself: insulin resistance in muscle, liver and fat, the TCF7L2 gene, and how fasting blood glucose, the oral glucose tolerance test and HbA1c are read, including why HbA1c alone can mislead in anaemia or kidney disease. It then runs through the main drug classes, from GLP-1 agonists such as semaglutide and the sulfonylureas to pioglitazone, the alpha-glucosidase blockers and metformin.Five core botanicals follow, each with its chemistry, ethanol strength for extraction and safety notes: goat's rue, Gymnema sylvestre and its gymnemic acids, fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) with 4-hydroxyisoleucine and seed mucilage, cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) at 70% ethanol, and Phyllanthus amarus. Support for complications covers evening primrose oil for neuropathy, maitake and other beta-glucan mushrooms for immunity, bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) for retinopathy, milk thistle (Silybum marianum) for the liver, and ginger for circulation. It closes on the statement's case for herbalists and medical practitioners working together, with any change to prescribed medicine made jointly.In this episode: (00:00) Metformin and a garden weed; (01:45) What happens in type 2 diabetes; (07:12) Family history and the TCF7L2 gene; (09:25) FBG, OGTT and HbA1c; (14:13) GLP-1 agonists, sulfonylureas and pioglitazone; (16:34) Metformin, guanidine and goat's rue; (19:01) A low GI diet; (20:27) Antioxidants and oxidative stress; (23:50) Prebiotic fibre and the gut; (24:39) Meditation and forest bathing; (26:42) Cold percolation; (29:29) Dry extracts and coated tablets; (32:41) Goat's rue (Galega officinalis); (34:45) Gymnema sylvestre; (37:27) Fenugreek; (39:15) Cinnamon; (40:29) Phyllanthus amarus; (42:32) Neuropathy and evening primrose oil; (43:19) Immunity and medicinal mushrooms; (44:19) Retinopathy and bilberry; (45:01) The liver and milk thistle; (45:54) Circulation and the kidneys; (46:59) Conflict of interest and integrative care; (48:57) Herbs and drugs in combination; (51:36) Closing thought.About this episode: The Herbarium Hour is a third-party production based on the Institute's published papers. It is not produced in-house, and the hosts are not Institute staff. Where they get a technical detail wrong, the correction is listed here.Corrections. The podcast hosts misinterpreted the following from our papers:(00:28) The hosts said: Metformin is essentially an isolated compound from goat's rue. Correct: Metformin is a synthetic biguanide; it was developed from galegine, a guanidine alkaloid in goat's rue, and is not found in the plant itself.(02:01) The hosts said: The defining characteristic of type 2 diabetes is pancreatic beta cell insulin insensitivity. Correct: Type 2 diabetes is defined by insulin resistance in muscle, liver and fat cells together with a progressive decline in beta cell insulin secretion.Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, wrote the 2016 botanical consensus statement the episode is based on and chose it for the show. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the title, show notes, chapters and corrections from the episode transcript and scheduled the release.The Herbarium Hour, from the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Pelargonium sidoides, the South African root sold as umckaloabo, its tannins and coumarins, the EPs 7630 extract, and what an independent trial found when it was tested against usual care.The episode reads the Institute's 2026 Journal article. P. sidoides is a low, silver-leaved geranium of the summer-rainfall grasslands of the Eastern Cape and Lesotho, with a tuberous rootstock that carries it through frost, drought and fire; digging it kills the plant. Charles Henry Stevens brought a root decoction to Britain in 1897 and sold it without naming the plant. Adrien Sechehaye's Geneva case series of about 800 tuberculosis patients followed in the 1920s, and the source species, with P. reniforme alongside it, was identified in Munich in 1977. In 2010 the European Patent Office revoked Willmar Schwabe's extraction patent after oppositions that included the Masakhane community of the Tyhume Valley and the African Centre for Biosafety. It fell on lack of inventive step, so the benefit-sharing question went undecided.The Cochrane review (2008, updated 2013) graded the evidence for EPs 7630, an 11% ethanol liquid, as low quality in acute bronchitis and very low in sinusitis and the common cold, citing likely publication bias and manufacturer-sponsored trials; tablets did less well than the liquid. A 2026 open-label trial of 332 adults in Swiss primary care found no significant difference against usual care in time to halve symptom severity, with a trend to less antibiotic use, 17.4% against 25.2%. The last third covers red-flag symptoms and the one-week rule, the German liver warnings and the CIOMS reassessments in which none of 28 cases reached probable causality, its AUST R registration, the 2011 advisory committee minutes on a non-specific polyphenol assay, and what to check on the box.In this episode: (00:00) A brown bottle in the winter pharmacy aisle; (01:43) The article and its contradictions; (04:04) A geranium in witness protection; (05:40) Grasslands, frost and a 2,300 m range; (07:00) The tuber that survives fire; (07:42) Traditional use and the name umckaloabo; (08:40) Charles Henry Stevens and tuberculosis, 1897; (10:57) Sechehaye's 800 Geneva cases; (12:41) The plant is named in 1977; (13:51) Harvest kills the plant; (14:33) The Schwabe extraction patent; (15:39) The Masakhane community goes to Munich; (17:09) Revoked on inventive step; (18:42) Nagoya and provenance; (19:46) Wild harvest and cultivation; (21:07) Tannins and the pharmacopoeia standard; (22:44) Coumarins as the fingerprint; (23:26) Why these coumarins do not thin the blood; (25:40) In vitro against in vivo; (28:36) The Cochrane review and EPs 7630; (30:20) Low-quality evidence and sponsored trials; (31:11) Liquid against tablet; (32:27) The HATRIC feasibility study; (33:07) The 2026 Swiss primary care trial; (34:34) Fewer antibiotics?; (36:43) Red flags and the one-week rule; (38:35) Masking tuberculosis; (39:03) Side effects and allergy; (39:27) The German liver warnings; (39:54) Reassessing causality; (41:30) Why the warning stays; (42:16) Nose and gum bleeding; (43:41) How it reached Australian shelves: AUST R; (44:46) Export-only listings; (45:20) The 2011 committee minutes; (47:52) Has the evidence changed?; (49:15) What to check on the box; (51:13) Closing thought.Read more in the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/blog/umckaloabo-pelargonium-sidoides-evidence-review/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the show notes and chapters from the episode transcript.The Herbarium Hour, from the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Kava, Piper methysticum, its six kavalactones, the flavokavains and pipermethystine, and how a move from cold water to ethanol and acetone extraction changed what reached the liver.The episode reads the Institute's 2026 kava monograph. Kava is a sterile cultigen: it sets no viable seed, so every plant across Oceania for about 3,000 years has come from a stem cutting. The accepted name is Piper methysticum G.Forst.; material traded as Macropiper latifolium belongs to another species and is not kava. Vanuatu's Kava Act 2002 sorts the roughly 200 cultivars into noble, tudei and wichmannii groups and allows only noble kava for export and drinking. A common garden trial at the Waimanalo Research Farm in Hawaii grew two cultivars side by side for 3.4 years, and one carried about twice the kavalactones of the other. Strength follows the cultivar and the plant part; a Vanuatu origin speaks to legal standing and traceability.On the clinical side, a Cochrane review of 11 trials and 645 people found a 5-point drop on the Hamilton anxiety scale, graded tier B, almost all of it from acetone or ethanol extracts such as WS 1490. Aqueous extracts gave mixed results in generalised anxiety disorder, including a 16-week Australian trial of 171 people that did not beat placebo, and Australian listed medicines may only use an aqueous extract of peeled root or rhizome, capped at 250 mg of kavalactones a day. The second half covers the 2000 to 2001 liver injury reports, a published Australian death, kava dermopathy in heavy traditional drinkers, four explanations for the liver cases (peelings, solvents, mould and tudei substitution), the three-month limit, pregnancy, alcohol, paracetamol and levodopa, six questions to put to a supplier, and a clonal crop in a changing climate.In this episode: (00:00) Three thousand years of kava, then liver failure; (01:15) The Institute behind the monograph; (03:25) Piper methysticum, the intoxicating pepper; (04:21) A sterile clone kept alive by cuttings; (05:47) Peeled rootstock only; (06:30) G.Forst. or L.f.: a naming error in the trade; (08:55) Root scars, a fibrous fracture and a numb tongue; (10:30) Two hundred cultivars; (11:18) Vanuatu's Kava Act 2002: noble, tudei and wichmannii; (13:12) Rain, shade and three to five years in the ground; (14:53) The country-of-origin myth; (15:38) The Waimanalo common garden trial; (18:00) What a Vanuatu origin guarantees; (19:35) Six kavalactones; (20:28) Flavokavains and pipermethystine; (21:45) UHPLC and the chemotype code; (23:18) The kavain to flavokavain B ratio; (24:52) Cold water against ethanol and acetone; (26:20) Fifty times the flavokavains; (28:13) Liver cells in the dish; (29:42) The Cochrane review: 11 trials, 645 people; (31:46) Water extracts in generalised anxiety disorder; (33:16) The Australian irony: aqueous extracts only; (34:30) Trials that never named the chemotype; (35:55) The 2000 to 2001 liver reports; (37:07) An Australian death; (39:15) Pacific drinkers and kava dermopathy; (40:13) Four suspects: peelings, solvents, mould, tudei; (43:12) A perfect storm; (44:14) Australian limits: 250 mg, aqueous, peeled root; (45:41) Three months, pregnancy and alcohol; (46:30) Paracetamol and levodopa; (47:58) Six questions for a supplier; (51:23) A clone in a changing climate; (55:01) Closing.Read more in the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/pharmacopoeia/piper-methysticum/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the show notes and chapters from the episode transcript.The Herbarium Hour, from the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa, long filed as Cimicifuga racemosa), its triterpene glycosides actein and 23-epi-26-deoxyactein, and the liver injury warning Australian labels have to carry.The episode works through the Institute's pre-publication monograph AIP-HP003. It starts with the plant in shaded eastern North American woodland and the knotted dark rhizome and roots that make up the drug. Then comes the naming problem: the 1998 move of Cimicifuga into Actaea left the European Medicines Agency, the World Health Organization and most older trials on one name while the TGA and manufacturers moved to the other, so a toxicology search on one spelling misses decades of case data. Asian pharmacopoeias use Rhizoma cimicifugae for different species altogether, which is how a shipment of sheng ma can clear paperwork as black cohosh.A laboratory section explains how the powder is authenticated: lignified vessels with bordered pits, suberised cork fragments, starch granules of 3 to 15 micrometres with a slit-shaped hilum, and the negative markers the European Pharmacopoeia insists on, no stomata, no trichomes, no calcium oxalate. Potency runs on HPLC with light-scattering detection, twelve summed peaks against a minimum of 1.0% triterpene glycosides, calibrated against monoammonium glycyrrhizate from liquorice. The supply chain follows: about 500,000 pounds of root a year, roughly 97% wild collected, lookalikes such as Actaea podocarpa in the same ravines, cheaper Asian species substituted on purpose, and a 2001 TGA survey that found 35% of Australian retail products held other species. Cimifugin, absent from authentic North American material, is what a thin-layer chromatography screen hunts, down to about 5% adulteration.Chapters00:00 A supplement, then a transplant list01:39 Why the Institute put this monograph together03:16 The plant in Appalachian woodland04:55 The rhizome, the drug and its old names06:32 Cimicifuga or Actaea: the 1998 revision09:44 Sheng ma and the shipping manifest11:21 Microscopy: clearing agents and lignified vessels12:59 Starch granules with a slit hilum14:37 Negative markers that condemn a batch16:12 Triterpene glycosides and the 1.0% limit17:48 Why the calibrant comes from liquorice19:25 HPLC, light scattering and twelve peaks21:00 Half a million pounds a year, almost all wild collected22:42 Yellow cohosh, and deliberate substitution24:20 The 2001 TGA survey: 35% were other species25:57 Cimifugin, the chemical dye pack27:37 How the TLC screen is run29:17 Twenty-five years on, and a new market survey30:57 The phytoestrogen theory32:35 Formononetin was never there34:13 Serotonin, opioid and dopamine pathways35:49 What the 40 mg extract trials show39:08 Liquid extracts at 20 to 35 times the trial dose42:24 Idiosyncratic liver injury and the Australian label45:37 Liver disease, pregnancy and lactation47:16 The blue cohosh combination case48:51 Hormone-dependent tumours and the observational data52:10 A DNA barcoding proposal for the Australian market53:46 Closing thoughtMore from the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/pharmacopoeia/actaea-racemosa/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the show notes and chapters from the episode transcript. Jesse Kirby scheduled the release.Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Andrographis paniculata, the king of bitters, its andrographolide diterpenoids, and the anaphylaxis signal that led the TGA to remove it from the ingredients allowed in Australian listed medicines on 17/09/2026.The episode reads the Institute's 2026 monograph and literature review. Andrographis is a knee-high annual of the Acanthaceae from southern India and Sri Lanka, naturalised as a weed in parts of Queensland, with square stems, narrow hairless leaves and small white flowers marked with violet. The trade name green chiretta is shared with Swertia chirayita, a gentian with a different chemistry, so only the full binomial on the raw material identifies it. Edward John Waring's 1868 Pharmacopoeia of India listed it as a bitter tonic and doubted its credit, since his patients also got stronger remedies.The second half follows the TGA safety review to 31/12/2025: 287 Australian anaphylaxis reports, 130 hospital admissions, 105 people given adrenaline and one death in June 2024. Of those reactions, 74% began within 30 minutes, over half the people had no allergy history, and 71% came on first use or after earlier uneventful use. Combination products with echinacea made up about 98% of supply. Single-ingredient andrographis was 0.14% of supply and 0.74% of cases, echinacea without andrographis drew 10 reports over the same period, and Thai VigiBase data showed the same signal for andrographis taken alone. Label warnings from 2020 did not bring reports down. The closing sections cover what the removal means for listed medicines and for practitioner-compounded supply, warfarin and immunosuppressants, pregnancy, who should stop or avoid it, and the signs of anaphylaxis with the first aid: call triple zero, lie the person flat, and give adrenaline if in doubt.In this episode: (00:00) The medicine cabinet; (02:41) The Institute's sources; (04:58) From king of bitters to regulatory action; (05:27) A knee-high weed with square stems; (08:20) Many names, and the chiretta trap; (10:36) Traditional use across South Asia and China; (12:26) Waring's footnote, 1868; (14:39) What tradition can and cannot tell us; (16:09) Andrographis in Australian cold products; (17:41) Three different doses; (22:22) Does it shorten a cold?; (23:40) Tier B, and why; (25:51) COVID-19 trials in Thailand; (27:51) Ulcerative colitis, stopped for futility; (29:39) A modest benefit, summed up; (30:53) The TGA adverse event data; (31:55) What anaphylaxis does to the body; (33:05) 287 reports to December 2025; (34:19) Fast reactions in people with no allergy history; (36:42) How a first dose can react; (38:49) Was echinacea to blame?; (40:00) Supply data and single-herb products; (42:03) The Thai VigiBase signal; (43:36) Label warnings from 2020; (45:30) Why the labels failed; (48:52) Cofactors: anti-inflammatories, alcohol, exercise; (49:57) Removal from listed medicines, 17/09/2026; (51:48) The practitioner compounding exemption; (53:36) Screening, interactions and the first dose; (56:16) Is it worth prescribing?; (56:57) Check your cabinet; (58:00) Who should stop or avoid it; (59:41) Pregnancy and breastfeeding; (1:00:35) Signs of anaphylaxis; (1:02:05) First aid: triple zero, lie flat, adrenaline; (1:04:18) The arc of the story; (1:05:47) Closing thought.Read more in the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/pharmacopoeia/andrographis-paniculata/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the show notes and chapters from the episode transcript.The Herbarium Hour, from the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Medicinal cannabis (Cannabis sativa) in Australia after ten years of legal access, worked through the Institute's 2026 report card on the industry. Medicinal cannabis is a prescription medicine here, with THC in Schedule 8 and most CBD in Schedule 4.The episode closes on the report's recommendations for the next decade: one step clinics can take now under current law, and a second that needs law reform, held to the Ahpra guardrails.In this episode: (00:00) A medicine with no tested dose; (04:41) The Institute's report card; (06:32) How the system was built; (14:05) What legal access got right; (20:59) No ceiling on THC strength; (29:46) Single-medicine clinics; (35:20) Fees, imports and price; (39:00) What the trials show; (44:56) What prescribers are taught; (49:41) Sativa, indica and terpenes; (57:40) CBD interactions; (1:01:58) Who is on the clinic team; (1:05:06) Recommendations for the next decade; (1:10:25) Summing up.Read more in the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/blog/medicinal-cannabis-australia-industry-report-card/About this episode: The Herbarium Hour is a third-party production based on the Institute's published papers. It is not produced in-house, and the hosts are not Institute staff. Where they get a technical detail wrong, the correction is listed here.Corrections. The podcast hosts misinterpreted the following from our papers:(52:22) The hosts said: Limonene also lowered heart rate and kept THC's pain relief. Correct: The trial found less anxiety and paranoia; the report gives no heart rate or pain data.(58:21) The hosts said: CBD significantly raises THC levels and intoxication. Correct: Certainty was very low for THC and moderate for 11-hydroxy-THC, and intoxication was not reported.(56:38) The hosts said: The report calls the entourage effect mostly marketing. Correct: The report finds whole-plant effects never properly tested.(57:48) The hosts said: CBD lattes and gummies sell freely at markets. Correct: CBD is a Schedule 4 prescription medicine in Australia.(40:51) The hosts said: An NNT of 24 means 23 in 24 get no relief. Correct: One extra person in 24 gets a 30% pain reduction over placebo.(41:00) The hosts said: One in six has a severe adverse event. Correct: One extra person in six has an adverse event of any severity.(36:59) The hosts said: Street cannabis costs about $10.70 a gram. Correct: That is the bulk ounce price; the street median per gram was $22.50.(32:59) The hosts said: Ahpra said almost never first line. Correct: Ahpra said never first line.(1:05:11) The hosts said: Clinics should be mandated to bring this expertise onto staff now. Correct: Clinics may do this now; a requirement would be for regulators to set.(59:29) The hosts said: The report urgently advises INR monitoring with warfarin. Correct: It cites one case report and notes monitoring is advised.(34:00) The hosts said: The fines were for cancer and Alzheimer's claims. Correct: The report does not say what the advertisements claimed.(50:28) The hosts said: Sativa and indica plants are genetically identical. Correct: One study found the labels indistinguishable across the genome.(16:55) The hosts said: Mycotoxin spores can cause fatal lung infections. Correct: Mycotoxins are mould chemicals; the report makes no lung infection claim.Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Eleanor Whitcombe, Head of Medicine, checked the episode against the report for the corrections.The Herbarium Hour, from the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

Echinacea angustifolia and Echinacea purpurea, the narrow-leaved and purple coneflowers, their alkylamides, echinacoside and cynarin, and why a 60:40 root blend behaves differently in the liver.The episode reads the Institute's two 2026 monographs. A bottle labelled only echinacea leaves out the species, the plant part and the chemistry, which matters because the two roots are chemically unalike. E. angustifolia is a short prairie plant of the central Great Plains whose medicine sits in the taproot, so harvesting kills the plant, and wild stands are in decline; E. purpurea is farmed at scale in Europe. Neither grows wild in Australia, so the whole local supply is imported. A 2020 Italian field trial planted 65 seed accessions labelled as E. angustifolia from germplasm banks, botanic gardens and suppliers: 17 failed to establish and seven of the 48 survivors were other species or hybrids.Authentication fills the middle. Under the microscope E. angustifolia root shows lignified fibre bundles bordered by black phytomelanin and oleoresin canals; E. purpurea shows none. HPLC under the European Pharmacopoeia requires at least 0.5% echinacoside, with cynarin present to rule out E. pallida, and any cichoric acid in an angustifolia batch gives away purpurea root cut into it. An assay marker is then separated from an active constituent: echinacoside is stable, measurable and degrades with poor drying, so it checks handling, while the alkylamides behind the tingle the eclectics chewed for are what reaches the blood.Chapters00:00 A bottle with a purple coneflower on the label01:29 Two species, one name02:55 What a label leaves out04:20 No wild stands here: an imported supply05:47 The 2020 Italian seed trial07:12 Cross-pollination in the daisy family08:46 Phytomelanin under the microscope11:38 HPLC and the echinacoside limit13:05 Cynarin, and keeping E. pallida out14:32 The eclectics and the tingling tongue15:59 Parthenium integrifolium, the old counterfeit17:25 Assay marker against active constituent18:52 Tier C for either root on its own20:22 The Turner rhinovirus challenge trial21:47 Barrett 2010, and a p value of 0.08923:14 The long-haul flight trial24:45 Trial doses against clinical doses26:10 Why the blend is 60:4027:37 What never reaches the bloodstream29:02 Alkylamides and CB2 receptors30:28 First-pass metabolism and CYP3A431:54 Mechanism-based inactivation34:48 Narrow therapeutic margin medicines36:13 Asteraceae allergy and atopy37:38 Anaphylaxis and a 21-year Australian review39:03 The TGA andrographis investigation40:28 Echinacea's own signal in the reports41:56 The warning, and when it is an emergency43:22 What the eclectics used the root for46:15 Closing thoughtMore from the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/pharmacopoeia/echinacea-angustifolia/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the show notes and chapters from the episode transcript. Jesse Kirby scheduled the release.Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.

From willow bark to modern tablets, many medicines began as plants. This first episode introduces the Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy in Cardwell, far north Queensland, and its 2025 to 2029 plan to connect traditional plant knowledge with modern chemical analysis.More from the Institute's Journal: https://www.australian-pharmacognosy.org/blog/Nothing in this episode is a prescription or a dose. If you want to use a herb, consult a degree-qualified herbalist with competencies and adequate training in pharmacognosy.Dr Luke Iggulden, Chief Scientific Officer, made the episode from the Institute's Journal and monograph material. Jesse Kirby, Head of Community Outreach, wrote the title and show notes and scheduled the release.Australian Institute of Pharmacognosy, Cardwell, Queensland.