Virology Podcast by Karolina

Maybe you’ve had the experience of being sick, and your doctor struggling to find the right antibiotics to treat your infection. Or maybe you had to restart your treatment with different antibiotics because the first ones didn’t work.Situations like this are becoming more and more common, as antibiotic-resistant bacteria continue to spread. At the same time, new antibiotics are being developed very slowly.So the question is: could there be another solution?Another way to treat bacterial infections?One possibility is to use the natural predators of bacteria: viruses that specifically infect bacteria and destroy them. And what might surprise you is that this is not some futuristic idea. It’s an approach that has already been used to successfully treat patients, and it was developed more than a hundred years ago.As you probably guessed by now (and, well… as the title says), today’s episode is all about phage therapy.*If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”.*Sources: L. Zeldovich, 2024: The Living Medicine • A. Oromí-Bosch, 2023: Developing Phage Therapy That Overcomes the Evolution of Bacterial Resistance • S. A. Strathdee, 2019: The Perfect Predator • S. Uyttebroek, 2022: Safety and efficacy of phage therapy in difficult-to-treat infections: a systematic review • S. Arientová, 2025: Successful systemic phage therapy for implant-associated MRSA spondylodiscitis • S. A. Strathdee, 2023: Phage therapy: From biological mechanisms to future directions • G. F. Hatfull, 2021: Phage Therapy for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Infections • Q. Yang, 2023: Regulations of phage therapy across the world • J. P. Pirnay, 2018: The Magistral Phage • R. Larcher, 2025: Phage therapy in patients with urinary tract infections: a systematic review • S. Djebara, 2025: Implementation challenges of personalised phage therapy • L. H. Lang, 2006: FDA approves use of bacteriophages to be added to meat and poultry products • D. A. Schofield, 2011: 'Bioluminescent' reporter phage for the detection of Category A bacterial pathogens

We all know the story. When Europeans set sail for the so-called “New World”, they didn’t just bring ships and cargo - they also brought deadly diseases. They introduced pathogens into regions where no one had ever encountered them before. And in some areas, these outbreaks wiped out between 50–90% of local populations within just a few years. Most of us can name the usual suspects—smallpox or influenza… But fewer people realize that measles was nearly as deadly. In fact, historians often rank measles as the second deadliest of the imported epidemics. And in today’s episode, we’re diving into everything measles.You probably already know to be cautious, when somebody calls measles a harmless childhood disease. But how dangerous measles really is? And how common are the serious complications?Spoiler alert: it’s far from innocent.*If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”.*Sources: A. Ratner, 2025: Booster Shots: The Urgent Lessons of Measles and the Uncertain Future of Children's Health • J.M. Hübschen, 2022: Measles • P.M. Strebel, 2019: Measles • D.E. Griffin, 2018: Measles Vaccine • A. Lo Vecchio, 2021: Vitamin A in Children Hospitalized for Measles in a High-income Country • J.P. Byrne, 2022: Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues; chapter: Measles in the colonial Americas • M.J. Mina, 2019: Measles virus infection diminishes preexisting antibodies that offer protection from other pathogens • S. Xia, 2022: Assessing the Effects of Measles Virus Infections on Childhood Infectious Disease Mortality in Brazil • C.S. Benn, 2023: Measles vaccination and reduced child mortality: Prevention of immune amnesia or beneficial non-specific effects of measles vaccine? • WHO measles, mumps, rubella fact sheets (online, accessed 13/04/2025) • B. Deer, 2011: How the case against the MMR vaccine was fixed; 2020: The Doctor Who Fooled the World

When people think about viruses, one of the first things that comes to mind is that they’re small. And to be honest, that's how I would describe them too. I mean, that’s how we discovered viruses in the first place: they passed through filters that trapped bacteria, so we knew this infectious substance had to be smaller than any known cell.So when scientists came across the very first giant virus, they naturally assumed it must be a brand-new bacterium. In fact, this “mystery microbe” spent nearly a decade in a freezer before anyone realized it wasn’t a bacterium at all. This discovery opened the door to an entirely new world of giant viruses, which had gone unnoticed simply because no one was looking for something so large in the virus realm. And it also raised an important question that remains controversial: If some of these giant viruses cause disease in humans?*If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”.*Sources: B. La Scola, 2003: A giant virus in amoebae • C. Abergel, 2015: The rapidly expanding universe of giant viruses: Mimivirus, Pandoravirus, Pithovirus and Mollivirus • N. Brandes, 2019: Giant Viruses—Big Surprises • D. R. Wessner, 2010: Discovery of the Giant Mimivirus • B. La Scola, 2008: The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus • F. Sakhaee, 2022: Detection of Mimivirus from respiratory samples in tuberculosis‑suspected patients • J. M. Claverie, 2018: Mimiviridae: An Expanding Family of Highly Diverse Large dsDNA Viruses Infecting a Wide Phylogenetic Range of Aquatic Eukaryotes • D. Raoult, 2006: Laboratory infection of a technician by mimivirus • N. Yutin, 2014: Origin of giant viruses from smaller DNA viruses not from a fourth domain of cellular life • M. Khan, 2007: Pneumonia in mice inoculated experimentally with Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus • T. J. Rowbotham, 1983: Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from clinical specimens via amoebae, and the interaction of those and other isolates with amoebae • D. Raoult, 2007: The discovery and characterization of Mimivirus, the largest known virus and putative pneumonia agent • A. Levasseur, 2016: MIMIVIRE is a defence system in mimivirus that confers resistance to virophage • J. M. Claverie, 2016: CRISPR-Cas-like system in giant viruses: why MIMIVIRE is not likely to be an adaptive immune system • J. Abrahao, 2018: Lack of evidence of mimivirus replication in human PBMCs

I spent a good portion of the last episode telling you that HIV cannot be cured and our best option is to keep it under control with medication. But here’s the thing: I wasn’t telling you the whole truth. In a handful of cases, people have been declared cured of HIV. The first was known as the Berlin Patient, and since then, fewer than 10 cases have followed. Today, I’d like to share their story and explain why we shouldn’t hold out hope for a miracle pill—because this cure isn't some simple medication. Instead, these people received a high-risk bone marrow transplant from a donor genetically resistant to HIV. * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”. * Sources: T. R. Brown, 2015: I Am the Berlin Patient: A Personal Reflection • G. Hütter, 2009: Long-Term Control of HIV by CCR5 Delta32/Delta32 Stem-Cell Transplantation • R. K. Gupta, 2019: HIV-1 remission following CCR5Δ32/Δ32 haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation • J. Hsu, 2023: HIV-1 remission and possible cure in a woman after haplo-cord blood transplant • W. A. Paxton, 1996: Relative resistance to HIV-1 infection of CD4 lymphocytes from persons who remain uninfected despite multiple high-risk sexual exposure • J. Novembre, 2005: The geographic spread of the CCR5 Delta32 HIV-resistance allele • A. P. Galvani, 2005: The evolutionary history of the CCR5-Delta32 HIV-resistance mutation • L. Kordelas, 2014: Shift of HIV tropism in stem-cell transplantation with CCR5 Delta32 mutation • T. J. Henrich, 2014: Antiretroviral-free HIV-1 remission and viral rebound after allogeneic stem cell transplantation: report of 2 cases • S. Yandrapally, 2021: HIV co-receptor-tropism: cellular and molecular events behind the enigmatic co-receptor switching

In the 1980s, doctors began noticing a troubling pattern: previously healthy individuals were succumbing to rare diseases that their immune systems couldn’t fend off. This alarming phenomenon was traced back to the HIV virus, which ultimately leads to the development of AIDS—a condition where the immune system stops functioning properly.  In today's episode, we delve into the scientific quest to uncover the origins of this medical mystery, explore the origins of the virus, and bring a warning about proper hygiene when hunting monkeys. * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”. * Sources: CDC, 1981: Pneumocystis Pneumonia -- Los Angeles • CDC, 1981: Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men--New York City and California • F. Barré-Sinoussi, 1983: Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) • J. Hemelaar, 2012: The origin and diversity of the HIV-1 pandemic • T. Zhu, 1998: An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic • M. Worobey, 2008: Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960 • D. Quammen, 2015: The Chimp and the River • PM. Sharp, 2011: Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic • T.  Cihlar, 2016: Current status and prospects of HIV treatment • LG. Bekker, 2024: Twice-Yearly Lenacapavir or Daily F/TAF for HIV Prevention in Cisgender Women • J. Paik, 2022: Lenacapavir: First Approval • M. Worobey, 2016: 1970s and ‘Patient 0’ HIV-1 genomes illuminate early HIV/AIDS history in North America • RA McKay, 2014: Patient Zero • B. Lein, 2024: AIDS treatment activism, a Bay area story (online, accessed 14/07/2024) 

Maybe you noticed media reports talking about ancient viruses found in permafrost. Sometimes even using catchphrases like "zombie virus revived from the ice". And I am not exaggerating, even CNN used the term zombie virus in a headline. Today I would like to talk about where these stories are coming from and what research was done on viruses or their fragments conserved in permafrost.  On viruses that were discovered in permafrost samples as old as 50,000 years.  On viruses that can sometimes still be infectious, even after all this time. * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as “Podcast o virech”. * Sources: R. Wu, 2022: RNA Viruses Linked to Eukaryotic Hosts in Thawed Permafrost • J. Alempic, 2023: An Update on Eukaryotic Viruses Revived from Ancient Permafrost • M. Legendre, 2014: Thirty-thousand-year-old distant relative of giant icosahedral DNA viruses with a pandoravirus morphology; 2015: In-depth study of Mollivirus sibericum, a new 30,000-y-old giant virus infecting Acanthamoeba • S. Rigou, 2022: Metagenomic survey of the microbiome of ancient Siberian permafrost and modern Kamchatkan cryosols • The Guardian, 2024: Arctic zombie viruses in Siberia could spark terrifying new pandemic, scientists warn (online, accessed 21/04/2024) • S. Malavin, 2020: Frozen Zoo: a collection of permafrost samples containing viable protists and their viruses • Z. Zhong, 2021: Glacier ice archives nearly 15,000-year-old microbes and phages • K. Hueffer, 2020: Factors Contributing to Anthrax Outbreaks in the Circumpolar North • V. Timofeev, 2019: Insights from Bacillus anthracis strains isolated from permafrost in the tundra zone of Russia • P. Biagini, 2012: Variola virus in a 300-year-old Siberian mummy

It probably wouldn't surprise you if I told you that someone lied to make money. But today I would like to talk about a lie that changed the world we live in. It is a story of a doctor, who claimed that the MMR vaccine causes autism. He published a study detailing 12 children who allegedly developed autism after receiving the MMR vaccine. However, it was later revealed that the results were falsified, and the doctor in question was likely trying to fabricate evidence for a planned lawsuit against pharmaceutical companies. So, lets talk about the study in question and also about the subsequent research that was done to either confirm or refute this alarming claim, and in which there wasn't observed link between autism and MMR. * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). The podcast is also available in Czech as Podcast o virech. * Sources: B. Deer, 2011: How the case against the MMR vaccine was fixed; 2020: The Doctor Who Fooled the World • F. DeStefano, 2019: The MMR Vaccine and Autism • S.E. Coffin, 2002: MMR and autism: moving from controversy toward consensus • N.S. Ashmani, 2022: Early Prediction and Evaluation of Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders • F. Rafiee, 2022: Brain MRI in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Narrative Review and Recent Advances • M.L.B. Novilla, 2023: Why Parents Say No to Having Their Children Vaccinated against Measles • A. Jain, 2015: Autism occurrence by MMR vaccine status among US children with older siblings with and without autism • A. Hviid, 2019: Measles, Mumps, Rubella Vaccination and Autism: A Nationwide Cohort Study • WHO measles, mumps, rubella fact sheets (online, accessed 24/02/2024)

How do you look for something invisible? Today, I would like to go to the very beginning of the virology field. To the time when people only started to realize that viruses exist and can cause diseases. Because this required a whole shift in how people thought about infection.  So, let me tell you a story, about the first virus ever discovered. * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). * Sources: M. Zaitlin, 1998: The Discovery of the Causal Agent of the Tobacco Mosaic Disease  KBG Scholthof, 2008: Tobacco Mosaic Virus: The Beginning of Plant Virology MH Van Regenmortel, 2008: Tobacco Mosaic Virus M. Karamanou, 2012: From miasmas to germs: a historical approach to theories of infectious disease transmission ANH Creager, 2022: Tobacco Mosaic Virus and the History of Molecular Biology

Usually, we think about viruses as the enemies that threaten our health. But this episode talks about a time when scientists decided to turn the tables and take advantage of a virus. More specifically, we explore the time when Australia struggled with overpopulated rabbits that were damaging the local ecosystem and causing extinctions of heritage species. So finally, the Australian authorities decided to use the rabbit myxoma virus to eliminate the rabbits by lethal epidemics. Let's see what followed! * If you enjoyed this episode and want to stay updated on more virology stories, please follow @virology_podcast or @karolina_science on Instagram :). * Sources: F. Fenner, 2010: Deliberate introduction of the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, into Australia P. J. Kerr, 2021: Viruses for landscape-scale therapy: biological control of rabbits in Australia B. Spiesschaert, 2011: The current status and future directions of myxoma virus, a master in immune evasion P. J. Kerr, 2012: Myxomatosis in Australia and Europe: A model for emerging infectious disease J. M. Alves, 2022: A single introduction of wild rabbits triggered the biological invasion of Australia