That's So Second Millennium

Popes 2D - Benedict   Pope Benedict XIV (and portrait-bomber) by Giuseppe Maria Crespi, courtesy of meisterdrucke.us   These notes were not produced by AI; at a few points Magisterium AI was asked for bits of information that I digested and included in the narrative; as usual, a great deal depends on the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913).   Name Dates Birth Name St. Benedict of Nursia Life c. 480–543 (or 547) Benedict Benedict I 575–579 Bonosus (also called Benedictus) Benedict II 684–685 Benedict Benedict III 855–858 Benedict Benedict IV 900–903 Benedict Benedict V 964 Benedict Benedict VI 973–974 Benedict Benedict VII 974–983 Benedict Benedict VIII 1012–1024 Son of Count Gregory of Tusculum Benedict IX 1032–1044; 1045; 1047–1048 Theophylact of Tusculum Antipope Benedict X 1058 – 1059 (deposed) Unknown Benedict XI 1303–1304 Niccolò Boccasini Benedict XII 1334–1342 Jacques Fournier Antipope Benedict XIII 1394–1417 Pedro de Luna Benedict XIII 1724–1730 Pietro Francesco Orsini Benedict XIV 1740–1758 Prospero Lambertini Benedict XV 1914–1922 Giacomo Paolo Giovanni Battista della Chiesa Benedict XVI 2005–2013 Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger   Through Benedict XII / Antipope Benedict XIII there is considerable overlap between the historical periods covered by Johns and by Benedicts.   St. Benedict: Hermit, abbot, founder of the Benedictines and writer of their Rule, among the most consequential men of the patristic era.   Benedict I: Pope in a time of great upheaval, the early stages of the Lombard invasion of Italy. The Arian Ostrogoths had ruled Italy in the early sixth century but for the most part the popes could live with them. The Byzantines under Justinian invaded and wrecked Italy, finally consolidating power by 555, but the weakened peninsula was then overwhelmed by new Germanic invaders, the Lombards, starting in 568. The Lombards became Catholic but were still political antagonists of the popes for centuries. Little is preserved about Benedict I's pontificate due to the violence of the period.   St. Benedict II: Despite the shortness of his pontificate, a holy and consequential Pope. Negotiated important concessions from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Pogonatus regarding the imperial confirmation of papal elections, probably making it possible to receive them from the exarch in Ravenna instead of Constantinople, and was in general on good terms with the Byzantines. Promoted acceptance of the canons of the Sixth Council, Constantinople III (which had been held under the auspices of Pogonatus) by bishops in Spain, by Macarius of Antioch, and others. Supported St. Wilfrid in his conflict with neighboring bishops (as did John VI).   Benedict III: Clergy and Frankish imperial officials initially supported an antipope Anastasius against him, delaying his consecration. Into this gap a 14th century historian inserted one version of the fable of Pope Joan. His pontificate was troubled by turmoil in the Frankish realms. Apparently King Ethelwulf and Prince Alfred of Wessex visited him.   Benedict IV: Pope at the beginning of the troubled tenth century, but one of the better ones. Crowned Louis the Blind as Holy Roman Emperor, continued cleaning up the wreckage of the Cadaver Synod by confirming Pope Formosus' choice of Bishop of Langres.   Benedict V: Elected pope after the death of John XII and inherited the conflict between John and Emperor Otho, who had named Leo VIII as antipope. Otho captured Benedict and either compelled him to resign or simply carried him away from Rome to exile in Germany, where he died and was buried in the cathedral in Hamburg before his remains were returned to Rome.   Benedict VI: Elected to succeed John XIII. His consecration was delayed due to the time needed to get ratification from Emperor Otho II. He was captured by Crescentius, who had him strangled and intruded Antipope Boniface VII until the Emperor's legate could arrive and drive the antipope away. (This same antipope, after nine years' exile in Constantinople, returned and similarly did away with John XIV.)   Benedict VII: The legitimate pope that succeeded Benedict VI and Antipope Boniface VII (the first time). Worked to oppose simony (rife in that era, as discussed in previous episodes on Leo and Gregory), promoted monasticism (this must involve the Clunaic movement), and consecrated a bishop for Carthage. Overall little is recorded despite his nine year pontificate, probably due to the chaos of the period.   Benedict VIII: Son of the Count of Tusculum, a layman when elected, pope for 12 years. Crowned Henry II emperor and stayed on good terms with him. Was able to subjugate the descendants of Crescentius (see Benedict VI) and combated the Saracens in alliance with the Normans (this was over 250 years before the Sicilian Vespers). Went on a trip to Germany and held a synod at Pavia to condemn (again) simony and clerical concubinage. In all his pontificate seems like a surprisingly peaceful and prosperous one for the troubled tenth and eleventh centuries. See next entry...   Benedict IX: An awful Pope. A prototype of the "cardinal-nephew," the two previous Popes were his uncles. His father, Alberic, had him elected at the age of about 20. He "led a dissolute life" and was driven from Rome in 1044 with an Antipope Sylvester III named to replace him, but he overcame this and returned. Then came the truly notorious episode where his godfather, John Gratian, himself a fairly good priest and despondent over Benedict, offered him a bribe to resign (and take the opportunity to marry)--we mentioned this in the Gregory episode since John was elected pope and took the name Gregory VI. Benedict changed his mind; Sylvester was still in the field; and King Henry III (not yet Emperor?) intervened, called a Council in Sutri, and all three were deposed (the precedent for the resolution sought for the Western Schism almost four centuries later). Benedict continued contesting the outcome for years. He may have died an antipope, or he may have retired; a legend says he finally went to the Basilian Abbey of Grottaferrata and ended his days in quiet penance. Let's hope that's true.   Antipope Benedict X: As with the Johns, even though he was an antipope, he is still in the numbering scheme. He was elected against the wishes of the departed pope Stephen X, who wanted Hildebrand (the future Gregory VII) present for the election, but the same Tusculans who gave Rome Benedict VIII (and IX?) hustled through an election and got John Mincius of Velletri elected as Benedict X. Hildebrand returned to Italy from Germany and got support rounded up for a Bishop Gerhard to be elected as Nicholas II, who was able to overcome him. The whole episode was a major proximal cause of the crystallization of the College of Cardinals (under Nicholas II in 1059, heavily influenced by Hildebrand, and very controversial at first) in a shape that would evolve directly into what we know today.   Benedict XI: Master General of the Dominicans, he was elected pope after the tumultuous years of Boniface VIII and had a short reign.   Benedict XII: A French abbot and widely reputed to be a holy man. He was the third Avignon pope. He conducted some valuable church reforms, but he was politically unsavvy and was thoroughly manipulated by the French clergy and kings; these prevented him from moving the court back to Rome, although he often sent aid to Italy.   Antipope Benedict XIII: Peter de Luna, a character of the Western Schism, discussed in a previous episode (the Gregories, I think); claimed to be elected Pope in 1394 and hung on to his claim until his death in 1423.   Benedict XIII: An eldest child and heir to his uncle's duchy, he nevertheless fought his family and became a Dominican, a bit like Thomas Aquinas. Eventually his mother, sister, and two nieces joined the Dominican Third Order. He was a professor at 21 and made a cardinal and archbishop very early. He was a cardinal through five conclaves; the one that elected him Pope was over two months long, and he began a novena to Phillip Neri to bring it to a close. St. Phillip apparently got this done by bringing the electors around to Cardinal Orsini himself, who nearly refused election, but was commanded (for the last time) by the head of the Dominican order to accept. He reportedly took the name to honor Benedict XI, also a Dominican. At first he took the number XIV, but changed it to XIII in place of Peter de Luna. Religiously Benedict was a traditionalist and despiser of luxury and worldly pomp among clergy. He was politically more inclined to seek peace, and he was blind to the depredations of a favorite Cardinal Coscia. After Benedict's death Coscia was the subject of a popular uprising and spent ten years in prison.   Benedict XIV: A highly intelligent man, he held a series of curial positions before being made bishop of Ancona, a cardinal, and then Archbishop of Bologna, where he succeeded Corsini after his election as Clement XII. Like Benedict XIII, he was exemplary in his care for his dioceses. He was also one of the greatest scholars to become Pope and was also a sociable and beloved man. He was "said to have never allowed anyone to leave his presence dissatisfied or in anger." He took the name Benedict at the end of a six month conclave as the compromise candidate after several earlier attempts at compromises fell through. Even more so than Benedict XIII, he was keen to conciliate and end disputes in political matters, but he was thorough and precise in ecclesiastical matters. The position on mixed marriages requiring both parties to promise to raise the children in the Catholic Church was promulgated by him. He reorganized and thinned down the Church calendar. He also was a frugal Pope and ran the Papal States as prudently as he could, although he is recorded to have said, "The Pope orders, the cardinals do not obey, and the people do as they please." Benedict XIV's pontificate saw progress in the reunification of some Eastern Rite Churchs with Rome. He saw some of the measures that missionaries were taking to "inculturate" the Faith in China and Malabar to be incorporating some outright paganism and put out two bulls restricting this. He was a voluminous writer and also reorganized and expanded the Vatican Library. He even got along quite well with Voltaire.   Benedict XV: Also a curial functionary, then archbishop of Bologna, he was made cardinal by Pius X in 1914 shortly before the election that would make him Pope in September of that year. The first half of his pontificate coincided with the First World War, during which he importuned repeatedly for peace and offered several times to broker peace talks to no avail. But he also finished and promulgated the 1917 Code of Canon Law among other ongoing reforms.   Benedict XVI: Most listeners will need no discussion of this Pope, but the whirlwind tour: He was born in interwar Germany, another brilliant student like Benedict XIV; he became a famous theologian of the mid 20th century and was an influence at the Second Vatican Council. Unlike many of his peers, he found a way in that tumultuous period to hold on to the truths of the faith while engaging with the intellectual challenges of the modern world. Shortly before his death Paul VI made him Archbishop of Munich; John Paul II in 1981 made him Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, where he was responsible for clarifying Catholic teaching in a wide variety of circumstances; he was in that role also president of the International Theological Commission and the Pontifical Biblical Commission.   Upon the death of John Paul II, Joseph Ratzinger was Dean of the College of Cardinals, and his inspired oratory during the transitional period seemed to lead gracefully into his election as Pope. While in many circles he is considered a "reactionary," he held to the changes made by the Council and effectively ratified by the pontificates of Paul VI and John Paul II, while notably clarifying the position of the older form of the Latin Mass and explicitly permitting it to be celebrated, and at the same time admonishing the Church to celebrate the new form with greater dignity and adhesion to the rubrics and intentions expressed in the documents of the Council. Already Dean at his election, and struggling to deal his age (and arguably with certain scandals within the Curia), he made the decision to resign the Papacy in early 2013, leading to the election of Pope Francis. He nevertheless lived another decade in quasi-monastic retirement, occasionally conversing with his successor, and publishing a few additional books.

Portrait fresco of John XXII, 14th century (Collection of the Palais du Roure, Avignon)   Here is the big one...the notes this time are nearly entirely from Magisterium AI.   John I 523–526 John II 533–535 John III 561–574 John IV 640–642 John V 685–686 John VI 701–705 John VII 705–707 John VIII 872–882 John IX 898–900 John X 914–928 John XI 931–935 John XII 955–964 John XIII 965–972 John XIV 983–984 John XV 985–996 Antipope John XVI997–998 John XVII 1003 John XVIII 1004–1009 John XIX 1024–1032 John XXI 1276–1277 John XXII 1316–1334 Antipope John XXIII 1410–1415 John XXIII 1958–1963   Here is the chronological sequence of the legitimate popes named John, with the notable antipopes inserted where they belong. “Given name” means the name recorded at birth; medieval records are sometimes incomplete, and the reasons for a papal name are often unknown. The numbering is not perfectly continuous because John XVI and John XXIII were also used by antipopes. John I (523–526) — Born John. Sent by Theodoric to Constantinople to negotiate for the Ostrogoths; imprisoned on his return and died in captivity. Venerated as a martyr. 1 John II (533–535) — Born Mercurius; the first pope known to have changed his name. He likely avoided a name associated with the Roman god Mercury. John III (561–574) — Born Catelinus. His long pontificate coincided with the Lombard invasion of Italy; political turmoil left few records of his work. 2 John IV (640–642) — Born John. Condemned Monothelitism at a Roman synod and used Church funds to ransom captives taken in Dalmatia and Istria. John V (685–686) — Born John in Syria; his brief pontificate was largely uneventful. John VI (701–705) — Born John, probably in Greece. Protected the English bishop Wilfrid when he appealed to Rome against his deposition. John VII (705–707) — Born John in Calabria. His dealings with the Byzantine emperor over the Trullan Council’s canons were notably cautious. John VIII (872–882) — Born John. A forceful pope in the politics of the Carolingian empire and the Photian controversy; he was assassinated, the first papal murder reliably documented. John IX (898–900) — Born John. Rejected the Cadaver Synod and reaffirmed the validity of ordinations performed by Pope Formosus. John X (914–928) — Born John. Helped organize the coalition that defeated Muslim forces at the Garigliano; later imprisoned and suffocated amid Roman political struggles. John XI (931–935) — Born John. His mother, Marozia, and later his half-brother Alberic II dominated Roman affairs; John himself was largely confined to the Lateran. John XII (955–964) — Born Octavian. He adopted the papal name John, but the reason is not securely known; he crowned Otto I emperor and was later deposed amid a conflict with him. 3 John XIII (965–972) — Born John. Worked with Otto I to establish church structures in newly Christianized parts of central and eastern Europe. John XIV (983–984) — Born Pietro Canepanova. He changed his name on becoming pope; the reason is uncertain. After Otto II’s death, he was imprisoned by the returning antipope Boniface VII and died in captivity. 4 John XV (985–996) — Born John. In 993 he formally canonized Ulrich of Augsburg, an important early precedent for papal canonization. Antipope John XVI (997–998) — John Philagathos, a Greek cleric backed by the Roman noble Crescentius and the Byzantine court, opposed Pope Gregory V. He was captured and cruelly mutilated; the number XVI remained in the papal sequence despite his being an antipope. 5 John XVII (1003) — Born Giovanni Sicco. His pontificate lasted only about five months, and little is known of his actions. Some older lists call him John XVI because they omit the antipope. John XVIII (1004–1009) — Born Giovanni Fasano. He supported churches in Germany and missionary work in eastern Europe; he reportedly retired to a monastery near the end of his pontificate. John XIX (1024–1032) — Born Romano of Tusculum. Brother of Benedict VIII, he was reportedly a layman when elected and received the clerical orders in rapid succession; he crowned Conrad II emperor. John XXI (1276–1277) — Born Pedro Hispano, a Portuguese scholar and physician. His pontificate was brief; he died after a building at his residence collapsed. The sequence skips John XX, probably because an earlier list mistakenly counted John XXI as John XX. 5 John XXII (1316–1334) — Born Jacques Duèse. Elected during the Avignon papacy, he governed amid disputes with the Franciscan Spirituals and the Empire. His views on the timing of the beatific vision provoked controversy; shortly before his death, he clarified his position. Antipope John XXIII (1410–1415) — Baldassare Cossa, elected during the Western Schism, was recognized by some European powers but is classified as an antipope. The Council of Constance deposed him; he later submitted to the legitimate pope, Martin V, and died a cardinal. 5 John XXIII (1958–1963) — Born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli. He said he chose John in memory of his father and of the church where he was baptized, and because it was a name borne by many popes. The long-used number had been associated with the antipope Cossa, so Roncalli’s choice also made clear that he regarded Cossa as illegitimate. He convened the Second Vatican Council, opened it in 1962, and issued Pacem in Terris in 1963. Canonized in 2014. 6 7 8 [Compare the list in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) for J at https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/j.htm: John I, Pope Saint - A Tuscan, was warmly received in Constantinople, but upon his return to Rome, was imprisoned by King Theodoric. Pope John died in prison in 526 John II, Pope - A Roman and the son of Projectus; if not born in the second region (Coelimontium) he had at least been a priest of St. Clement's Basilica John III, Pope - A Roman surnamed Catelinus, d. 13 July, 574 John IV, Pope - A native of Dalmatia, and the son of the scholasticus (advocate) Venantius John V, Pope - A Syrian whose father was one Cyriacus; when he was born is not known; d. 2 August, 686 John VI, Pope - A Greek, the date of whose birth is unknown; d. 11 January, 705 John VII, Pope - Reigned 705-707 John VIII, Pope - Reigned 872-882 John IX, Pope - Reigned 898-900 John X, Pope - Born at Tossignano, Romagna; enthroned, 914; died at Rome, 928 John XI, Pope - Reigned 931-935 John XII, Pope - Date of birth unknown; reigned 955-64 John XIII, Pope - Date of birth unknown; enthroned on 1 Oct., 965; d. 6 Sept., 972 John XIV, Pope - After the death of Benedict VII, Bishop Peter Campanora of Pavia, earlier imperial chancellor of Italy, was elected pope with the consent of Emperor Otto II, and took the name of John John XV (XVI), Pope - Enthroned 985; d. April, 996 John XVI (XVII) - Antipope 997-998; d. probably in 1013 John XVII (XVIII), Pope - Date of birth unknown; d. 6 Nov., 1003 John XVIII (XIX), Pope - Successor of John XVII, consecrated Christmas, 1003; d. June, 1009 John XIX (XX), Pope - Enthroned in 1024; d. 1032 John XXI (XX), Pope - Born at Lisbon between 1210 and 1220; enthroned, 1276; died at Viterbo, 20 May, 1277 John XXII, Pope - Born at Cahors in 1249; enthroned, 5 September, 1316; died at Avignon, 4 December, 1334 John XXIII - Antipope (1370-1419)] On the choice of “John”: John II is the first clear case of a pope replacing his birth name. Later popes did not always explain their choices, so it is safer to say “the reason is unknown” than to assign a motive. John XXIII’s own explanation is unusually well known; his choice also resolved the ambiguity created by the antipope John XXIII of the Western Schism. [1] Brief History of the Popes of the Catholic Church, Pope 53. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/5c1c0305-3796-4f86-aa16-0976192fe5a0/ref/Pope%2053 [2] Catholic Encyclopedia, Pope John III. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/f2c979a8-871d-4f46-a059-320d3b837a76/ref/Pope%20John%20III [3] Acta Sanctorum: October, Tomus IX, page971. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/21295254-43a2-4087-bd3f-79da0a582477/ref/page971 [4] Acta Sanctorum: October, Tomus I, page1047. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/1313933b-2f86-4852-8038-23033ac4e84f/ref/page1047 [5] Acta Sanctorum: October, Tomus I, page1048. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/1313933b-2f86-4852-8038-23033ac4e84f/ref/page1048 [6] Brief History of the Popes of the Catholic Church, Pope 261. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/5c1c0305-3796-4f86-aa16-0976192fe5a0/ref/Pope%20261 [7] Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Christian East, John XXIII. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/2cb86786-6b8e-4ddd-b5fe-d1ebaccb869c/ref/John%20XXIII [8] Biography of Pope John XXIII, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/cbddf34f-3e9c-4649-8d18-36034c36ec2b/ref/page1 You’re right to question that. I overstated the evidence: John XXIII is not shown in the available sources explicitly saying that he chose the number XXIII to reject or disavow Baldassare Cossa. In his address immediately after accepting the election, Roncalli explained that “John” recalled his father and the parish where he was baptized; he also noted the name’s prominence among popes and its connection with John the Baptist and John the Evangelist. He counted twenty-two earlier popes named John, but did not mention Cossa or say that he was correcting the numbering. 1 So the careful conclusion is: Cossa’s status as an antipope explains why later Catholic lists do not count him as a legitimate pope, but these sources do not establish that rejecting him was Roncalli’s stated reason for taking “XXIII.” My previous answer presented that inference too confidently. And yes: the list contains 23 people if both antipopes are included—21 legitimate popes and two antipopes. “John XX” is not a separate pope; John XXI was mistakenly numbered XX in some older lists, a different numbering confusion from Cossa’s claim to XXIII. [1] Address following Pope John XXIII's acceptance of the supreme mandate (October 28, 1958) - Speech, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/169003f9-b891-4b5e-920e-3402be5d2ab6/ref/page1

Image: St. Dominic at prayer by El Greco. https://www.artchive.com/artwork/st-dominic-praying-el-greco-c-1588-spain/ St. Dominic 1170 - 1221 Here I take up the opportunity offered by Francis and John Paul I and suggest a name that I believe is quite ripe for the picking to be added to the list of papal names. Remarkable points from the Catholic Encyclopedia:     • Dominic was from a saintly family and a younger brother, Manes, joined the Dominican order.     • He studied for ten years at the University of Palencia.     • At a very young age he was recruited to help the Bishop of Osma reform his cathedral chapter.     • He stumbled into the Albigensians in southern France when he was sent as part of an embassy to court a Danish (?) princess on behalf of Prince Ferdinand of Castile.     • She died while en route back to Castile and this left Dominic at loose ends. He thus began working to confront the Albigensians with preaching and personal sanctity.     • The Cistercians had been entrusted with this mission, but were too worldly in that epoch.     • Preaching to women was a key part of this effort and led Dominic to establish a female order early on.     • A Simon de Montfort (remember that this was the early 13th century and the Norman kings of England still ruled much of southwest France) went on crusade after one of the Cistercian leaders was assassinated in 1208. For all that Dominic himself did not engage in violence he cooperated with Simon and was thought of very highly by that captain.     • The connection with the rosary seems to be indirect. Dominic was praying for a successful outcome to the battle of Muret, which in fact went miraculously well and Simon dedicated a chapel in the church where Dominic had been praying dedicated to Our Lady of the Rosary, showing that the rosary was already known.     • Dominic did not found the Inquisition and may never have been part of it. It was active in the Albigensian area (associated with the Cistercians?) already in 1198, while Dominic was still a canon living in virtual seclusion in Osma.     • Dominic refused many elections as bishop and said he would run away in the night rather than accept.     • He attended the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), which had the same "pastoral" focus that Dominic had, but was opposed to establishing any new religious orders and particularly any new Rules. Dominic had the backing of a local bishop and so for a time the Dominicans were limited to the diocese of Toulouse under Bishop Foulques, and they used the Rule of St Augustine (an intriguing point at present). He was then able to get papal approval in 1216, the year after the Council closed, essentially as a branch of the Augustinians.     • He was the Lenten preacher to the Curia in 1217.     • Dominic, whose university education had been invaluable for over a decade in preaching and debating Albigensians, wanted the same benefit for his friars and sent "Matthew of France" and two brothers to the University of Paris--so this connection goes back, indirectly, to Dominic himself. He also sent Dominicans to the University of Bologna.     • Dominic spent the next few years on constant visitation, traveling from Rome to Spain and back, founding friaries and convents along the way.     • The Dominicans took up Pope Honorius' invitation to preach against heresy in Lombardy. This was Dominic's final great project, and shortly afterward he died. The case for a Pope Dominic: The name Dominic represents the highest standard of intellectual achievement alongside fervent faith, asceticism, and persuasive preaching. A pope taking this name could look to emphasize any of these facets of his life and legacy. More discussion from Magisterium AI: "St Dominic (Dominic of Caleruega, or Guzmán) was born in Castile around 1170 and died in Bologna on 6 August 1221. The broad outline of his life is well established, though many colorful details—especially stories of visions and miracles—come from devotional accounts and should be distinguished from the firmer historical record. Pope Benedict XVI summarizes his defining vocation as a life devoted to prayer, preaching, and the salvation of souls. 1 2 Dominic studied at Palencia, where he became known for his learning and concern for the poor; a famous account says he sold his books during a famine to help those in need. He later served as a canon and then prior at Osma. On journeys with Bishop Diego of Osma, he encountered the religious crisis in southern France and committed himself to preaching there. He preached by word and by an austere example of life; Alban Butler’s account emphasizes that his methods against heresy were instruction, patience, prayer, and penance—not violence. 1 2 3 4 Around this mission, Dominic gathered a community of preachers. The Order of Preachers—later known as the Dominicans—received papal confirmation in 1216. Dominic sent friars to establish communities and places of study across Europe, and the order grew rapidly. He died in poverty, leaving his brethren a final exhortation to charity, humility, and voluntary poverty. 5 6 7 Biographies and starting points Three substantial biographies worth considering are:     • Pierre Mandonnet and H.-M. Vicaire, S. Dominique, l’idée, l’homme et l’œuvre (2 vols., 1937–38). Butler calls this the “definitive work” in his account of the literature on Dominic. It is the strongest choice here for a detailed historical study, though it is in French. 8      • Mother Frances Raphael Drane, The History of St. Dominic, Founder of the Friar Preachers (1891). Butler identifies it as one of the best original lives in English. It is a substantial older biography, best read with awareness that historical methods and scholarship have since developed. 8      • Fr. Bede Jarrett, Saint Dominic and the Order of Preachers (1924). Butler also lists this among the best original English lives. It offers a Dominican author’s account of the saint and the order he founded. 8  For an early, near-contemporary perspective rather than a modern biography, begin with the life by Blessed Jordan of Saxony, Dominic’s successor as head of the order; Butler notes that it is the starting point for the early biographical material. 7 [1] General Audience of 3 February 2010, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/a7b79d58-fa61-4e68-bc3f-0fac17ed1d67/ref/page1 [2] General Audience of 3 February 2010: Saint Dominic Guzman, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/91f76554-dad9-47e8-ab8d-362f7afaf303/ref/page1 [3] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page264. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page264 [4] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page262. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page262 [5] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page265. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page265 [6] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page266. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page266 [7] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page267. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page267 [8] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page268. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page268 Q2 Here are the dates supported by the available references:     • St Dominic: c. 1170–1221. 1      • St Albert the Great: c. 1206–1280; his birth year is uncertain, with some accounts giving 1205 or 1206. 2      • St Thomas Aquinas: c. 1224/25–1274; sources differ on his precise birth year. 3 4  Other Dominican scholastics whose names appear in the references include Hugh of Saint-Cher, Roland of Cremona, Richard Fitzacre, Peter of Tarentaise, and Robert of Kilwardby. The references identify them as notable Dominican scholars but do not give their birth and death years, so I can’t responsibly supply dates for them from the available evidence. 5 [1] General Audience of 3 February 2010: Saint Dominic Guzman, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/91f76554-dad9-47e8-ab8d-362f7afaf303/ref/page1 [2] Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Albertus Magnus. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/f2c979a8-871d-4f46-a059-320d3b837a76/ref/St.%20Albertus%20Magnus [3] General Audience of 2 June 2010: Saint Thomas Aquinas, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/2b20e842-e703-4dac-979e-c1973c7ba480/ref/page1 [4] Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Thomas Aquinas. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/f2c979a8-871d-4f46-a059-320d3b837a76/ref/St.%20Thomas%20Aquinas [5] Catholic Encyclopedia, Order of Preachers. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/f2c979a8-871d-4f46-a059-320d3b837a76/ref/Order%20of%20Preachers Q3 The clearest documented chain is Dominic → Jordan of Saxony → Albert the Great → Thomas Aquinas—but it is a chain of influence and Dominican formation, not a series of personal meetings. Dominic died in 1221; Albert entered the Order after hearing Jordan preach, and Thomas, born around 1224–25, became a Dominican and then studied under Albert. Peter of Tarentaise is also linked to Albert and Thomas through work on Dominican study regulations. For the other early Dominican scholars named earlier, the available evidence does not establish a comparably specific personal chain back to Dominic. The strongest links in the network Dominic and Jordan of Saxony Jordan is the firmest bridge from Dominic’s personal leadership to the Order’s next generation. He succeeded Dominic as master general in 1222 and wrote an early account of the Order’s beginnings. In that account, as quoted by Pope Benedict XVI, Jordan remembers Dominic as embracing people in charity and sharing their joys and sorrows. This is valuable testimony from a successor who knew Dominic, though the evidence here does not supply detailed episodes of their private relationship. 1 2 Dominic’s influence also passed through the institutions he established. He instructed his friars in preaching, teaching, study, and personal holiness, then sent them out to found communities and preach in different places. The young Order quickly developed a university presence: Dominican communities were founded in Paris and Bologna during Dominic’s lifetime. 3 4 Jordan and Albert This is the best-documented link between the first generation and Albert. While studying at Padua, Albert encountered the Dominicans and heard Jordan preach. Pope Benedict XVI describes Albert’s entry as a gradual decision, influenced by Jordan’s preaching and the friars’ example; Albert received the habit from Jordan. Thus Albert’s connection to Dominic is mediated through Jordan and the Order, not a reported personal encounter with Dominic. 5 The exact date of Albert’s entry is not settled by the supplied material: one account places it in 1223, while another associates Jordan with receiving Albert among postulants in 1222. The sound conclusion is that Albert entered after Dominic’s death, under Jordan’s leadership. 6 7 Albert and Thomas Albert and Thomas had a direct, well-attested teacher–student relationship. Benedict XVI says Thomas was sent to Paris in 1245 to study theology under Albert, and that they developed a deep friendship. A modern scholarly study places their shared residence at the Paris Dominican priory of Saint-Jacques from 1246 to 1248 and describes Albert as Thomas’s mentor. The dating and descriptions are compatible: the papal account gives the broad sequence, while the study specifies their common residence. 8 9 Thomas was attracted to the Dominican ideal in Naples, but the evidence here does not document a direct personal line from Dominic to Thomas. Indeed, Thomas was born around 1224–25, several years after Dominic’s death, so the connection is necessarily through Dominic’s Order and its members, not through meeting its founder. 10 Albert, Thomas, and Peter of Tarentaise Peter of Tarentaise—later Pope Innocent V—is linked to Albert and Thomas through a Dominican institutional setting. The Catholic Encyclopedia account of Albert reports that Albert, Thomas, and Peter were associated at the Order’s General Chapter at Valenciennes in 1250, where rules for Dominican studies and academic degrees were drawn up. This connects Peter to the same educational and institutional world as Albert and Thomas, though it does not show a personal relationship between Peter and Dominic. 6 What can be said about the other early scholars?     • Hugh of Saint-Cher: The available material does not document a personal meeting or teacher–student relationship linking him to Dominic, Albert, or Thomas. One scholarly excerpt mentions Albert’s use of the teaching of a “Hugh,” but it does not establish that this is Hugh of Saint-Cher; it should not be used to claim a link between the Dominican Hugh and Albert. 11      • Roland of Cremona: No direct relationship with Dominic, Albert, or Thomas is documented in the material available here.      • Richard Fitzacre: No direct relationship with Dominic, Albert, or Thomas is documented here.      • Robert of Kilwardby: No direct relationship with Dominic, Albert, or Thomas is documented here.  For these three, and for Hugh of Saint-Cher, the Order’s shared institutions and historical succession provide a broad context, but that is not the same as evidence of contact. The references available here do not give enough detail to trace particular relationships or to say which men personally knew one another. The network, stated cautiously The documented connections can be represented this way: Dominic → founded and organized the Order; promoted study and preaching → Jordan of Saxony, his successor and an early biographer → Albert the Great, drawn to the Order by Jordan’s preaching and given the habit by him → Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican and Albert’s student and friend ↔ Peter of Tarentaise, connected with Albert and Thomas in work on Dominican study regulations. The solid links are Jordan–Dominic, Jordan–Albert, Albert–Thomas, and the institutional association of Albert, Thomas, and Peter. The further back one tries to push the chain for the other scholars, the evidence supplied here becomes too thin to distinguish direct contact from mere membership in the same developing Order. 1 2 5 9 8 6 Histories and early sources to consult The material available here does not identify a single modern, comprehensive history of the Order’s entire first century. It does, however, point to several useful starting places for reconstructing its beginnings and institutions:     • Jordan of Saxony’s Libellus de principiis Ordinis Praedicatorum is an early account of the Order’s origins and Dominic. Jordan’s testimony is especially important for understanding Dominic’s character and the founder-to-successor connection. 2      • Francis C. Lehner, ed., St. Dominic: Biographical Documents includes the Primitive Constitutions. Those documents help explain the Order’s common life, obedience, and study—important context for understanding how Dominic’s foundation shaped later Dominican scholars. 12      • The Monumenta Ordinis Praedicatorum historica and the ** Cartulaire de St Dominique** are identified as collections of early Dominican historical material and documents. The Cartulaire is described as particularly document-rich, though it focuses chiefly on Dominic and the foundation rather than offering a complete narrative of the first century. 13      • Pierre Mandonnet, St. Dominic and His Work is a substantial study of Dominic and his achievement, useful for the founder and the first stage of the Order’s development, but it is not identified here as a comprehensive history of the Order through 1316. 14  For the Albert–Thomas relationship, the supplied materials also point to Jean-Pierre Torrell’s Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Person and His Work and to scholarly studies of Albert’s influence on Thomas. These are useful for the later part of the network, but do not, on their own, supply the missing biographical links for every early Dominican scholar. 9 12 [1] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume I, page359. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/3c7d2cbf-a41f-4fbc-acb1-ab6a917f47fe/ref/page359 [2] General Audience of 3 February 2010, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/a7b79d58-fa61-4e68-bc3f-0fac17ed1d67/ref/page1 [3] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page265. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page265 [4] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page266. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page266 [5] Alberto Magno (1206-1280) - General Audience (2010), page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/91eb3b95-6759-4c22-ad30-4e1f72e86c94/ref/page1 [6] Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Albertus Magnus. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/f2c979a8-871d-4f46-a059-320d3b837a76/ref/St.%20Albertus%20Magnus [7] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume IV, page349. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27fe0d57-cd5a-44e9-b92b-302d778b1d79/ref/page349 [8] General Audience of 2 June 2010: Saint Thomas Aquinas, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/2b20e842-e703-4dac-979e-c1973c7ba480/ref/page1 [9] Aquinas as Interpreter of Augustinian Illumination in Light of Albertus Magnus, page2. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/a99f2701-0519-42b2-bd20-315542bf291a/ref/page2 [10] General Audience of 2 June 2010, page1. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/9bfe7812-f981-4e00-9a42-537426fa161e/ref/page1 [11] Sacramental Wisdom: Humilitatio, Eruditio, Exercitatio in the Scholastics and Today, page9. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/c973f572-72d7-478d-9af2-242e414cdecc/ref/page9 [12] The Importance of Rapture in the Thought of Aquinas, page25. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/5f95b23e-ffdc-49a5-8367-476e265bf16b/ref/page25 [13] Butler's Lives of the Saints: Volume III, page267. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/27b2019e-dfde-455f-9831-d0458ff162e3/ref/page267 [14] Thomists at War: Pierre Mandonnet, Étienne Gilson, and the Contested Relationship between Aquinas’s and Dante’s Thought (1879–2021), page3. https://www.magisterium.com/docs/01ff26bf-3bae-4ec3-af00-b4fbb04a8839/ref/page3

John Paul I: This is an image from the Nationaal Archief, the Dutch National Archives, and Spaarnestad Photo, donated to Wikimedia in the context of a partnership program. John Paul II: https://audrey-shark.blogspot.com   John Paul I [Albino Luciani] 1978 John Paul II [Karol Wojtyla] 1978-2005   From Claude: Here are the conclaves since 1900, with length counted inclusively from the first day of voting to the day the pope was elected: Year Pope elected Dates Days Ballots 1903 Pius X Jul 31 – Aug 4 5 7 1914 Benedict XV Aug 31 – Sep 3 4 10 1922 Pius XI Feb 2 – 6 5 14 1939 Pius XII Mar 1 – 2 2 3 1958 John XXIII Oct 25 – 28 4 11 1963 Paul VI Jun 19 – 21 3 6 Aug 1978 John Paul I Aug 25 – 26 2 4 Oct 1978 John Paul II Oct 14 – 16 3 8 2005 Benedict XVI Apr 18 – 19 2 4 2013 Francis Mar 12 – 13 2 5 2025 Leo XIV May 7 – 8 2 4 This is from memory, and I haven't checked it against a source. The dates and ballot counts for the modern conclaves are well documented. The counts for the early ones, especially 1903 and 1914, can differ by a ballot or so between sources, because records of older conclaves are less precise. Day counts also depend on whether you count inclusively, as I did, or count the nights elapsed. The 1922 conclave was the longest of the period at 14 ballots, and 1939 the shortest at 3. +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ From vatican.va: HIGHLIGHTS OF THE LIFE OF HIS HOLINESS JOHN PAUL I 1912, 17 October Born at "Forno di Canale" (Belluno), (actually at Canale d'Argordo), son of Giovanni Luciani and Bortola Tancon; was baptized the same day at home, by the midwife, as he was in danger of death. 19 October Baptism was formalized in the Church by the curate, Don Achille Ronzon. 1918 October Began elementary school. 1919 26 September Was confirmed by Bishop Giosuè Cattarossi. 1923 October Entered the minor seminary in Feltre. 1928 October Entered the Gregorian Seminary at Belluno. 1934 Ordained as sub-deacon. 1935 2 February Ordained as deacon. 7 July Ordained to the priesthood at St. Peter's Church of Belluno. 9 July Named curate of the parish at Canale d'Agordo. 18 December Transferred as curate of Agordo and named instructor of religion at the Technical Institute for Miners in Agordo. 1937 July Named vice-rector of the Gregorian Seminary in Belluno (1937-1947). October Began his service as instructor. 1947 27 February Graduated from the Gregorian University in Rome with a doctorate in Sacred Theology, his thesis being, "The origin of the human soul according to Antonio Rosmini". November Nominated chancellor of the diocese of Belluno by Bishop Girolamo Bortignon. 16 December Nominated Monsignor. Nominated Secretary of the Diocescan Synod. 1948 2 February Nominated Pro Vicar-General of the diocese of Belluno. Nominated Director of the Catechetics Office of the Diocese. 1949 December Published Catechetica in briciole. 1950 March Published his doctoral thesis. 1954 6 February Nominated Vicar-General of the Diocese of Belluno. 1956 30 June Nominated Canon of the Cathedral. 1958 15 December Named Bishop of Vittorio Veneto by Pope John XXIII. 27 December Consecrated Bishop by John XXIII at St. Peter's Basilica together with the newly consecrated bishops, Gioacchino Muccin and Girolamo Bortignon. 1959 11 January Took possession of the diocese of Vittorio Veneto 17 June Began his pastoral visit. 1962 8 October - 8 December Was present for the opening of the Vatican Council II in Rome; returning to his diocese only for a few days. 1963 28 September - 4 December Returns to Rome for the 2nd Session of the Vatican Council II; returning to his diocese only for a few days. 1964 13 September - 21 November Returns to Rome for the 3rd Session of the Vatican Council II. 1965 13 September - 9 December Returns to Rome for the 4th Session of the Vatican Council II. 1966 16 August - 2 September Traveled to Burundi on mission for the diocese of Vittorio Veneto. 1969 15 December Named Patriarch of Venice by Pope Paul VI . 1970 1 February Received honorary citizenship of Vittorio Veneto. 8 February Officially entered the City of Venice as Patriarch. 25 October Began his pastoral visit. 1971 12-14 June Made a pastoral visit to Switzerland, returning by way of Savoy. 28 September - 5 November Participated in the II Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops in Rome regarding "The Ministerial Priesthood and Justice in the World", returning to his diocese from 23 to 31 of October. 1972 12-17 June Was elected Vice President of the Italian Bishops Conference, holding this position until 2 June 1975. 16 September Received Pope Paul VI in visit to Venice. 1973 5 March Created Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. 1974 27 September - 26 October Participated in the III Ordinary General Assembly in Rome of the Synod of Bishops regarding "Evangelization in the Modern World". 1975 18 May Traveled on Pastoral Visit to Germany. 6-21 November Completed a Pastoral Visit to Brasil where he was given the honorary degree of "honoris causa" from the state university of "S. Maria a Rio Grande do Sul". 1976 January Published: Illustrissimi. 10-13 September As an official representative of the Italian Episcopal Conference, participated in the commemorative celebration at Spalato, Yugoslavia. 1977 30 September - 29 October Participated in the IV Ordinary General Assembly in Rome of the Synod of Bishops regarding "Catechetics in Our Time". 1978 6 August Death of Pope Paul VI. 10 August Left for Rome. 26 August During the second day of the conclave, elected Supreme Pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church, choosing the name John Paul I. 27 August Gave his first radio message «urbi er orbi». 3 September Ceremony that initiates his pastoral service. 28 September Died. +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ John Paul I - A strange, indeed unique figure in the history of the Papacy. Other Popes have had very short ministries (he himself would probably not appreciate me using the term "reigns"); others have had controversial deaths that might have been foul play (I have not studied the matter); but it would seem that none has introduced himself to the world with two names, nor has any other appended the ordinal "First" to his assumed name. Francis, famously, did not do so a few decades later. In this strange and quiet way he marked out his own milestone in the Church's shift from the conventions of the second millennium to the third. He obviously broke ground for Francis by taking a new name, and he was a man of such influence that his very different successor took up his implied directive and his name. Given the shortness of his pontificate John Paul I did not contribute a papal document to the Church's social teaching; rather, his life was a kind of embodiment of it. (The source I am following here is the introduction to Lori Pieper, OFS, A Passionate Adventure: Living the Christian Life Today, which is otherwise a collection of writings from Albino Luciani's career as a bishop and cardinal.) As a geologist I will stop to comment that Albino Luciani was born and grew up in a village in the Dolomite Alps. They have that name because they are composed largely of very pale dolomite, which is usually used as both a mineral name and the name of a rock composed dominantly of that mineral, although you will find that carbonate geologist who will employ the term "dolostone" for the latter. It's an odd name. Dolomieu is a town in France, adjoining another part of the Alps much further west. That town's most famous citizen was Deodat de Dolomieu, a late 18th century naturalist for whom dolomite is named. Prior to the 19th century these Dolomite Alps in northeast Italy were apparently called by a name that roughly translates "Pale Mountains," which is much like the range of quartzite mountains in Wyoming called the "Snowy Range," but these Dolomite Alps were renamed officially in the 1860s. Albino's father was a laborer who left the Church for socialism for a while in his youth; he was a young widower with two deaf daughters when he married Albino's mother, who convinced him to come back to the Church. Albino would become the "smiling Pope" and apparently his father had been a smiling workingman. A number of times in his life he had to seek work in nearby countries (Switzerland, Germany, France). Albino later recollected that he was struck by the grandness of the organ and the church in his little village, and specifically that it seemed to welcome him and his fellow poor village boys as if they were princes--that this testified to him about the nature of the Church of Christ which acknowledges great dignity in the poor. A Capuchin preacher one Lent prompted his vocation to the priesthood. Supposedly his father said in reply from France, "I hope that when you become a priest you will be on the side of the workers, for Christ Himself would have been on their side." Albino served a short time as a parish priest in his own village and neighboring parishes, but his intellectual ability led his bishop to put him to work teaching in the seminary. In fact, the need for this was apparently so urgent that rather than send him to Rome to get the usually required licentiate, he was retained in the Veneto and eventually the Gregorian University agreed to let him earn his doctorate "remotely" as we now say. (It was also 1941 and things were rather unsettled.) In 1943-1945 he was part of the underground during the Nazi occupation of northern Italy after the coup against Mussolini and the Allied invasion. Albino knew Angelo Roncalli, who admired him and appointed him bishop of Vittorio Veneto shortly after becoming Pope. Paul VI eventually made him Patriarch of Venice (where both John XXIII and Pius X had also been before him). When Paul VI died in 1978, there was an unexpectedly swift conclave--only four ballots--and Albino emerged as Pope despite his own belief that a Third World cardinal should be elected and that he himself was not a great candidate. Albino actually is on record as saying simply that John XXIII made him bishop and Paul VI made him cardinal and therefore he took both those names. This seems incredibly ingenuous to me--but perhaps in keeping with Albino's whole career of preaching and public pronouncements. Apparently his parish priest gave him a gentle rebuke for using too many complicated words in a text meant for the parish bulletin, and young Albino took this very much to heart, cultivating a very simple style meant to be comprehensible to everyone, poor as well as educated. Nevertheless he was a very capable intellectual, a theologian capable of careful reasoning, and a document largely drafted by him was used by Paul VI for some critical passages in Humanae Vitae. So what he was concealing beneath this simple explanation for upending the entire tradition of papal regnal names may have been rather deep and subtle, although no doubt the truth of this will never be known. John Paul II - The thought of doing justice to his influence in this space overwhelms me. I have spent a great deal of time on John Paul I because, despite the ephemeral nature of his papacy, he broke such new ground in terms of papal names. The fact that John Paul II implicitly agreed to take up the "burden" of a double name then cemented this legacy as he would carry it for over 26 years as a Pope who was a public figure of the first magnitude--his own legacy and hopefully not even his greatest one. From Magisterium AI: Karol Wojtyła’s Love and Responsibility was first published in Polish in 1960. 16 October 1978 — Election to the papacy. The Polish Cardinal Karol Wojtyła was elected pope and took the name John Paul II. 1 1979 — Redemptor Hominis. His first encyclical set out a central theme of his pontificate: the human person understood in the light of Christ. The supplied sources identify his major encyclicals as a defining part of his teaching, though they do not give this document’s date or contents. 1981 — Attempt on his life. He was shot in St Peter’s Square on 13 May and later forgave his attacker (Mehmet Ali Agca). 1981 — Familiaris Consortio. Following the 1980 Synod of Bishops on the family, this apostolic exhortation gave a systematic direction to the Church’s pastoral care of family life. 1983 — Promulgation of the revised Code of Canon Law for the Latin Church. The new Code was among the major instruments of Church governance promulgated during his pontificate. 1983 — Year of Redemption. John Paul II proclaimed this special year as part of the spiritual preparation that later led toward the Great Jubilee. 1985 — World Youth Day begins. John Paul II’s initiative to bring young people together became a lasting feature of his pastoral ministry. 1987–1988 — Marian Year. This was another major spiritual observance in the preparation for the Jubilee of 2000. 1990 — Promulgation of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. Together with the Latin Code, it was a major contribution to the law and organization of the Catholic Church. 1 May 1991 — Centesimus Annus. Issued for the hundredth anniversary of Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum, this social encyclical revisited the Church’s teaching on social and economic life in light of recent history, including the collapse of the Soviet system. It affirmed democracy and economic initiative while stressing that both must be judged by moral principles and solidarity. 1992 — Catechism of the Catholic Church. John Paul II promulgated the Catechism as a comprehensive presentation of Catholic doctrine. 6 August 1993 — Veritatis Splendor. I can’t verify its date or summarize its teaching from the materials available here; they contain no text or reliable reference for this encyclical. 1995 — Evangelium Vitae and Ut Unum Sint. These encyclicals addressed the dignity and protection of human life and the pursuit of Christian unity. 2000 — Great Jubilee 2002 - World Youth Day in Toronto. 2 April 2005 — Death. The Jubilee was a high point of his pontificate. He died in Rome on 2 April 2005, after serving for more than 26 years.

St Paul I [brother: Stephen II] 757-767 Paul II [Pietro Barbo] 1464-1471 Paul III [Alessandro Farnese] 1534-1549 Paul IV [Giovanni Caraffa] 1555-1559 Paul V [Camillo Borghese] 1605-1621 St Paul VI [Giovanni Montini] 1963-1978   St. Paul I: brother to Pope Stephen II and succeeded him--the sort of thing that could happen in the premodern era. This was the era of Pepin the Frank, where the Frankish kingdom had just become the papacy's welcome bulwark against the conquests of the Lombards and the intrigues of the Byzantines, who also wished to take back control of as much of Italy as possible; at the end of the century this would lead to the crowning of Constantine as Western Emperor and the final decline of Byzantine influence, although the Lombard dukes would take longer to diminish in importance. Pope Paul I had a reputation for honor and personal sanctity which were still common in that era.   Paul II: elected in the fifteenth century recovery and Roman Renaissance period following the Avignon period and the schism and wild experimental councils that ended it. His uncle was Pope Eugene II and apparently he became a priest after his uncle's election. Paul II was a big spender on building projects (probably still needed at the time), carnivals and festivals, and was a supporter of the arts. However, he also found it necessary to reign in some of the more ardent Renaissance figures of his day and closed something called the Roman Academy for its excesses toward paganism and moral turpitude. He made efforts, building on the conciliar period at the beginning of the century, to bring Russia into communion with Rome and to combat the Turks who had just conquered Constantinople; these big ideas and initiatives were, sadly, not successful. The Ottomans continued expanding for centuries to come and Russia is still very much in schism with Rome.   Paul III: An aristocrat of the Farnese family, educated at Rome and Florence; knew Leo X from their youth in Florence. He was a cardinal from age 25 until his election as Pope at age 66, a period embracing the excesses of Popes Alexander and Julius/Julian and the beginning of Luther's disturbances. He was enormously influential between his intellect, education, wealth, time in the Sacred College, and diplomatic skill. Finally he was elected Pope in a time of turmoil, less than 20 years after Luther's 95 theses. By that point he was old and respected and past some questionable periods in his youth. Apparently Paul saw immediately that a new general council was needed to address the outbreak of Protestantism, but his efforts to get one started were thwarted by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's attempts to hammer out vague agreements that everyone could accept, and even more so by the power politics of the French under Francois I. He wanted the Holy Roman Empire divided and weakened, and did not care if heresy was the means to that end. In that light it is not surprising that he persecuted Protestants harshly within France itself. This became a recurring French policy and would culminate in the Thirty Years' War that devastated and practically ended the Holy Roman Empire as a united country. Pope Paul was not immune to concerns about the excessive power of the Holy Roman Emperors who had mistreated so many of his predecessors, Gregory VII in particular, but in this he may have been short-sighted; his family were traditional Guelphs who supported the Popes politically against the Emperors. In any case Paul III did get the Council of Trent started and, like Pope John XXIII, did see its initial sessions. Against Charles V's desires, they immediately set to work on some of the key issues regarding original sin, justification, and the sacraments. Meanwhile Pope Paul had begun many reforms of the Curia and Church discipline on his own initiative that after his death were taken up by the Council. He supported many of the new religious orders springing up in this era. Many see Paul III as a Pope of towering importance for the history of the Church.   Paul IV: Born of a Neapolitan noble family, brought into the Church by his uncle Cardinal Ottavino, but very attracted by the discipline of religious life. He, too, knew Leo X and was sent on diplomatic missions in his pontificate. Cardinal Giovanni, later Paul IV, eventually became a member of the priestly order set up by St. Cajetan. Because Giovanni was Bishop of Chieti, Theate in Latin, and because he was first general of the order, they became known as Theatines--a remarkably indirect reason. Protestant brigands sacked Rome in 1527 and the Theatines suffered greatly and went away to Venice for a few years, but Paul III believed they were needed in Rome and brought them back. Paul III made the future Paul IV a cardinal and employed him in reforming the Curia and in the Inquisition in Italy, where he was very strict if not harsh. Paul IV was very old at his election as pope and quite surprised by it. Legend has it that he might have refused the election if another cardinal had not announced that Charles V would veto Cardinal Caraffa if elected; in outrage at this attempt at meddling, Caraffa accepted. The Habsburgs shut the pope out of the serious issues of the era, especially the attempts at a political settlement with Protestants and issues around the succession to the Empire and forced the pope to ally with France. Unlike Paul III, Paul IV is not considered a successful pope. He promoted a very unworthy "cardinal-nephew" despite his own personal rigor; he was petty in awarding other family members with land taken from Spaniards due to his quarrels with the Habsburgs; he took probably very problematic measures encouraging harshness by Queen Mary in England and thwarting Cardinal Pole. He did take some actions toward re-establishing a Catholic hierarchy in the Netherlands and starting one in the Orient. He continued to encourage the Inquisition but at least had a reputation for being no respecter of persons in that regard, and he did disavow his problematic nephews after various failures.   Paul V: A relative of St. Catherine, his family was from Siena and had moved to Rome. In many ways he was a stiff canon lawyer and a bad negotiator. He got into a tremendously bitter dispute with Venice on grounds that to modern ears sound pretty bad: Venice refused to exempt clergy from civil courts. They did also forbid transfer of real property to clergy and required civil approval of new churches. Paul V put them under interdict, which they flagrantly ignored. The Jesuits, Theatines, and Capuchins left the city, and the other clergy apparently sided with the government. Much was written by learned men on either side, such as Baronius, Bellarmine, and the Venetian Paolo Sarpi--something of a quasi-Protestant and despiser of the politics of the Papal Curia. The French and Spanish governments helped broker a somewhat distasteful compromise--certainly distasteful to Paul V. Yet Paul V was not always so intransigent. He tried to reach a rapprochement with James I in England, asking that Catholics in general not be persecuted after the Gunpowder Plot but commiserating with the monarch over the attempted assassination, but the pope was rebuffed. An interesting note: According to J. Jungmanns, The Mass of the Roman Rite, Paul V signed a decree in 1615 allowing the Mass to be celebrated in Chinese, out of respect for the antiquity and learning of ancient Chinese philosophy, recognizing it as a peer to Latin or Greek. This decree was never transmitted and acted upon, and Benedict XIV a few years later decided differently. In administering Rome Paul V was more successful. Even though he promoted many members of his family, they in general served the administration well. He also got to celebrate many of the achievements of the sixteenth century: the new St. Peter's was finished, and he canonized or beatified saints like Charles Borromeo, Frances of Rome, Ignatius of Loyola, Francis Xavier, and Philip Neri. Sadly, his reign also saw the actual start of the Thirty Years' War.   Paul VI: Our first pope in living memory if we discount the preliminary discussion of the Piuses. Paul VI was a career Church diplomat, much like John XXIII and Pius XII. When John XXIII called the Second Vatican Council and then passed away a short time into its proceedings, Cardinal Montini was elected and took the long-disused name of Paul. He never publicly explained his choice in detail. It is widely believed that it was to hark back to the Apostle, far more than any kind of biretta-tip to a previous pope, although the legacy of Paul III and his reforms leading to the Council of Trent might be a distant secondary consideration. John XXIII had taken an even more disused name, the name of an Apostle, and Paul's legacy and its connection to Rome if anything makes it surprising that more Popes have not taken the name. In any case, Paul's pontificate was inevitably linked to the Council. His tasks were to celebrate and spread its messages, begin the authoritative interpretation of its statements, and carry out its intentions. In the event Paul was pope long enough to complete most of the latter: the enormous revisions to the Mass and to the Breviary or Liturgy of the Hours. He also implemented changes to the structure of the Curia in Regimini ecclesiae universae, a stream of influence on the later 1983 revision of the Code of Canon Law under John Paul II. Perhaps the final major document of the postconciliar period, the new Catechism of the Catholic Church, was not completed until 1994 and bears more of the mark of John Paul. Paul VI did not use the term "new evangelization" but made statements leading in that direction--for example, in the document Ecclesiam Suam on the Church's posture toward the modern world and in Evangelii Nuntiandi. He contributed to Catholic social teaching on the morality of economic development, especially in Populorum Progressio. In these ways he emphasized the positive developments begun during the Council. In other ways he took stands against the so-called "spirit of Vatican II" by emphasizing traditional doctrines. In Mysterium fidei he emphasized the continuing central role of the Blessed Sacrament in Catholic spirituality, and in Humanae Vitae he reiterated and put on a new, bolder, more consistently argued footing the traditions of Christian sexual morality, combating the unprecedented assault of the "Sexual Revolution" and paving the way for John Paul II to develop these ideas more fully in his pontificate.   Why Paul VII, and what would taking that name seem to imply for a 21st century pope? Using St. Paul as a reference point could never be inappropriate. In our contemporary situation the primary inference, an emphasis on the missionary calling of the Church, would again be foremost. Paul could also be used as a symbol of Romanness, but the political situation for that is hard to see reasserting itself any time soon. Obviously folk would assume a reference is being made back to Paul VI and to the Second Vatican Council. This, as even this short summary shows, would be an ambiguous reference. Is Paul VI the "liberal" Pope who fulfilled the Council's promise to rescue us from the Latin mumble Mass? Or is he the "conservative" Pope who was so out of touch as to condemn contraception? Paul III is a prominent enough figure that he, too, could serve as a reference point. In that case look out for a Third Vatican Council or (if Providence is truly gracious) a Fourth Council of Constantinople. The assessment of such a cardinal choosing to call out Paul III specifically (in addition to Paul the Apostle, Paul VI, and perhaps other great Pauls from Christian history) might be that the situation is parallel to the situation Paul III inherited in this way: The conciliar movement at the end of the Western Schism did not reach a stable resolution at Constance, Pisa, or Basle, but left smoldering embers that roared up as Protestantism and required the Council of Trent to address (unfortunately after enormous lasting damage was done). Similarly, the legacy of the Second Vatican Council is clearly unresolved. That is to say nothing of the millennium-old schism with the East, although this hypothetical Paul VII might or might not choose to embrace the goal of complete reunification of apostolic, sacramental Christianity--he might well decide that the Roman communion needs to heal its own wounds before launching itself more vigorously into that quest. In any case, a reference to Paul III might imply a belief in the need for another Council to settle the liturgical, administrative, and other problems still facing the Church.

Changing the numbering system to be more suggestive of a bracket. Sixtus is the third one seed, if you will. Image: Sandro Botticelli, 1480, Pope Sixtus II Popes names Sixtus (originally Xystus): St Sixtus I 117 or 119 to 126 or 128 Martyr St Sixtus II 257 to 258 Famous martyr, in the Roman Canon St Sixtus III 432 to 440 Sixtus IV 1471 to 1484 Sistine Chapel named for him Sixtus V 1585 to 1590 Great reformer of the Papal States and Curia   Sixtus or Xystus I: the earliest pope we have covered so far, in the very uncertain period of the second century, during the reign of Hadrian. The chronicles that look back to this time do not agree on the dates of his ministry and otherwise only record a few vague details. He is supposed to have placed the chanting of the Sanctus at its present place in the Mass, right after the Preface; he is also recorded to have been martyred, although nothing seems to be preserved about the event.   Sixtus / Xystus II: pope during the persecution of Valerian in the third century. His brief reign saw a reconciliation with St. Cyprian and churches in Africa and Asia Minor, which had been requiring heretics to be rebaptized. The persecution was stepped up in August 258 and Pope Xystus was beheaded with four deacons in a cemetery where he was celebrating Mass; two more deacons were executed the same day; the last and most famous deacon, Lawrence, survived a few days to be captured and according to legend roasted to death. Pope Sixtus to this day is mentioned in the full version of the Roman Canon of the Eucharistic Prayer.   Sixtus / Xystus III: prior to his election as pope, a correspondent with St. Augustine. Approved the acts of the Council of Ephesus and rededicated the restored basilica of St. Mary Major. This historical period included continued disputes with both Pelagians and Nestorians. Defended and maintained papal supremacy over Illyricum. Succeeded by Leo the Great.   Sixtus IV: pope of the late fifteenth century. Born of poor parents; became a Franciscan and a notable theologian. Unfortunately once pope he became a traditional nepotist and involved the Papal States in wars to put his nephews in charge of Florence and Ferrara, and wars of this nature continued to absorb papal attention through the beginning of the Reformation. He opposed and annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance and was successful in turning the Church away from conciliarism. He was a great builder and is said to have made Rome much more livable, helping continue its recovery from the Avignon period of the papacy. He reorganized and essentially refounded the Vatican Library and most famously built the Sistine Chapel.   Sixtus V: also of poor birth and Dalmatian ancestry, whose family had fled from Turkish expansion; supposedly a swineherd as a boy. Also became a Franciscan and rose to prominence in that order, also for a time appointed to the Inquisition in Venice. Accompanied the future Gregory XIII to Spain to investigate claims that the Archbishop of Toledo was a heretic, and the two did not get along. During Gregory XIII's long reign he was sidelined. Similarly to his time as an inquisitor, he proved to be an effective but severe and even brutal ruler of the Papal States. He had perhaps ten thousand to thirty thousand brigands to deal with and nearly exterminated them. He put the papal finances in order and built many useful and beautiful buildings, but seems to have taxed the economy into a stupor. Of particular significance, he created fifteen Congregations to organize the cardinals and created much of the current structure of the Curia. He caused editions of the Septuagint and the Vulgate to be printed, although his edition of the Vulgate is not considered to be of high quality, and even at the time was recalled and corrected in 1592 due to many errors already recognized. He was supposedly on the point of forcing the Jesuits to change their name from the "Society of Jesus" and change some of the rules of the order when he died. For a change he was actually notably non-nepotistic.   Why Sixtus VI: A cardinal would take this name in order to revive the memory of Sixtus II (and I), recognizing that the Church in so many parts of the world faces persecution on a massive scale. That by itself might be enough. The early modern era Popes Sixtus, especially Sixtus V, might contribute to the idea especially if 1) the cardinal is a Franciscan and 2) he plans to address the Vatican finances and the organization of the Curia at large.  

Paul followed through on his promise to read Fathers and Sons by Turgenev, Paradise Lost, and Crime and Punishment to discuss with a former student. Some gleanings from his particular corner of the asylum.

Life keeps happening. Pope Sixtus is the next name on the docket and I will get it out by July. Another fascinating history if not as long as Leo or Gregory. I have promised a former student to read along with her: Crime and Punishment by Dostoevsky, Fathers and Sons by Turgenev, and Paradise Lost by you know who. So I will attempt to drop a few thoughts about that sometime over the course of June. Another topic: Pope Leo's first encyclical. After reading the first ten paragraphs, I am very struck by his distributist (that word is clearly lurking in the background) interpretation of Nehemiah, the story he presents as paradigmatic for human economic effort arranged in a way consistent with human nature and our relationship with God. Surely Bill and I can find some grist to grind there when I get him corralled and back at a microphone.

The talk I actually gave at the retreat...I ended up not even giving the Man of God talk. Artwork: The Ghent Altarpiece, 15th century

I would have liked to get an episode of the bracket out during the actual NCAA tournament, but I was asked to give two talks at a confirmation retreat, so I'm giving those to you as bonus episodes. Stay tuned later in April for an episode featuring the name Sixtus...only five of them but quite the history. --Paul Image credit for Christ, the Man of Sorrows: https://www.wga.hu/html/c/ceccarel/sorrows.html